HX64097226 
R504  ,8012  Science  and  learning 


Science  and  Learning 


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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

Open  Knowledge  Commons 


http://www.archive.org/details/sciencelearningiOOwigm 


Science  and  Learning 
In  France 


Science  and  Learning 
In  France 


WITH    A   SURVEY  OF  OPPORTUNITIES 

FOR  AMERICAN  STUDENTS  IN 

FRENCH  UNIVERSITIES 


AN  APPRECIATION 

BT 

AMERICAN  SCHOLARS 


THE  SOCIETY  FOR 
AMERICAN  FELLOWSHIPS  IN  FRENCH  UNIVERSITIES 

1917 


Copyright  1917,  by 
John  H.  Wigmore 


All  Rights  Reserved 


TO 

THE  SCHOLARS  OF  FRANCE 

WORTHY  CUSTODIANS 

OF  THEIR  COUNTRY'S  INTELLECTUAL  GREATNESS 

THIS  VOLUME 

PREPARED  IN  A  TIME 

WHEN  FRANCE  HAS  REACHED 

THE  HEIGHTS  OF  MORAL  GREATNESS 

IS  OFFERED 

WITH  HEARTFELT  ADMIRATION  AND  SYMPATHY 

IN  THE  NAME  OF 

THE  SCHOLARS  OF  AMERICA 


EC 


Preface 

Our  purpose  in  this  volume  is,  primarily,  to  put  before 
the  American  public  the  contributions  of  France  in  all 
fields  of  scientific  knowledge,  and  to  show  her  status  in 
the  forefront  of  the  world's  progress;  and,  in  addition, 
to  furnish  to  American  university  students  all  informa- 
tion bearing  on  graduate  work  in  France. 

Each  chapter  sets  forth  briefly,  for  a  particular  field: 

1.  The  record  of  French  scholarship  during  the  past 
century;  the  notable  achievements;  the  eminent  leaders; 
the  special  lines  of  development;  in  general,  the  share 
of  France  in  the  world's  progress; 

2.  The  courses  of  instruction  given,  now  or  recently, 
at  the  universities  of  France,  particularly  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris;  the  names  of  the  most  important  schol- 
ars, with  mention  of  their  principal  contributions  and  of 
the  special  fields  of  research  over  which  they  preside; 

3.  The  facilities  available  for  study  and  research, 
including  the  libraries,  laboratories,  archives,  and  mu- 
seums, the  auxiliary  institutes,  special  schools,  and  learned 
societies  and  committees. 

There  is  also: 

An  Introduction,  describing  the  general  intellectual 
spirit  of  France  and  Paris,  and  the  interest  and  attrac- 
tions that  capital  and  country  offer  to  the  foreign  scholar; 
and 

An  Appendix,  describing  the  organization  of  French 
universities,  the  standards  of  preparation  expected  of  the 
student,  the  system  of  degrees,  the  customs  as  to  resi- 
dence and  attendance,  the  regulations  as  to  fees  and 
the  like;  and  other  facts  useful  to  the  visiting  student. 

ix 


X  PREFACE 

The  book  has  been  made  possible  by  the  Hberality  of 
the  Society  for  American  Fellowships  in  French  Univer- 
sities, which  has  borne  all  the  expense  of  publication. 

The  ultimate  and  cardinal  mission  of  the  book  will  be 
an  act  of  homage  to  French  science.  Let  the  scholars 
of  France  know  that  their  American  colleagues  are  eager  to 
pay  this  just  tribute !  The  great  place  of  France  in  the 
world  of  knowledge  —  the  place  that  it  always  has 
held  and  always  will  hold  —  can  never  be  forgotten  by 
their  debtors  on  this  side  of  the  ocean. 

The  men  who  wrote  this  book  are  qualified  to  speak 
on  their  subjects;  a  glance  at  their  names  will  show  that 
their  word  is  decisive.  They  represent  American  schol- 
arship. They  have  spoken  frankly,  sincerely,  and 
judicially,  without  reserve  or  exaggeration. 

Their  message  goes  out  to  the  American  people. 
May  it  convey  some  fresh  light  to  our  fellow-countrymen, 
and  help  to  fix  in  their  conviction  the  true  status  of 
French  learning  in  the  world! 

This  book  was  planned  and  begun  towards  the  end  of 
the  year  191 5;  and  in  presenting  it  now,  when  the  bonds 
of  mutual  esteem  and'  gratitude  between  France  and 
America  have  been  drawn  even  more  closely,  the  Authors 
believe  that  they  are  not  only  pointing  the  youth  of  our 
country  to  splendid  sources  of  knowledge  and  wisdom, 
but  are  also  serving,  in  the  measure  of  their  ability,  to 
strengthen  and  confirm  that  comradeship  of  scholars 
which  symbolizes  the  enduring  friendship  of  the  two 
nations. 

The  Editor. 

June,  1917. 


Contents 

PAGE 

List  of  Authors xiii 

List  of  Sponsors         xvii 

Introduction 

The  Mind  of  France i 

The  Intellectual  Inspiration  of  Paris  ....  5 

Anthropology 19 

Archaeology  and  History  of  Art      ....  29 

Astronomy        45 

Botany  and  Agriculture 55 

Chemistry 67 

Criminology 79 

Education 87 

Engineering 95 

Geography 105 

Geology — 

Geology 115 

Mineralogy  and  Petrology 122 

Palaeontology 127 

History 131 

Law .  141 

Mathematics 161 

Medicine — 

Introductory  Survey ,.      .  171 

Physiology 175 

Neurology 179 

Medicine 187 

Surgery 196 

Pathology 202 

xi 


xu  CONTENTS 

Philology  — 

Classical 207 

Romance 221 

Oriental 233 

Semitic 243 

English 250 

Philosophy 257 

Physics     .         271 

Political  Science — including 
Economics  and 

International  Law 279 

Psychology 303 

Religion 311 

Sociology 321 

Zoology 329 

Appendix  I:  Educational  Advantages  for  Ameri- 
can Students  in  France;  with  a  History  of  the 
Recent  Changes  in  its  University  System   .      .     345 

Appendix  II:  Institutions  of  Higher  Learning; 
their  Organization,  Degrees,  Requirements, 
Fees,  etc 373 

Appendix  III:  Practical  Suggestions  to  the  In- 
tending Graduate  Student 413 

Index 427 


List  of  Authors 


Introduction 

Charles  W.  Eliot 

Harvard  University 

George  E.  Hale 

Foreign     Secretary    of    the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences 

Anthropology 

Charles  H.  Hawes 

Dartmouth  College 

Alfred  M.  Tozzer 

Harvard  University 
Archaeology 

George  H.  Chase 

Harvard  University 

Harold  N.  Fowler 

Western  Reserve  University 

A.  L.  Frothingham 

Princeton  University 

J.  R.  Wheeler 

Columbia  University 

Astronomy 
Philip  Fox 

Dearborn  Observatory 
(Northwestern  University) 

George  E.  Hale 

Carnegie  Institution 
Observatory,  Mt.  Wilson 

W.  D.  MacMillan 

University  of  Chicago 

Forest  R.  Moulton 

University  of  Chicago 


Henry  N.  Russell 

Halsted  Observatory 
(Princeton  University) 

Botany  and  Agriculture 
John  M.  Coulter 

University  of  Chicago 

Chemistry 
Wilder  D.  Bancroft 

Cornell  University 

Frank  B.  Dains 

University  of  Kansas 

L.  J.  Henderson 

Harvard  University 
Criminology 
Charles  A.  Ellwood 

University  of  Missouri 

Maurice  Parmelee 

College  of  the 
City  of  New  York 

Arthur  J.  Todd 

University  of  Minnesota 

Education 
John  Dewey 

Columbia  University 

Frederic  E.Farrington 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education 

Paul  H.  Hanus 

Harvard  University 

Charles  H.  Judd 

University  of  Chicago 


xiu 


XIV 


LIST  OF  AUTHORS 


Engineering 
Ira  N.  Mollis 

Worcester    Polytechnic    In- 
stitute 

Henry  M.  Howe 

Columbia  University 

Alex.  C.  Humphreys 

Stevens   Institute   of   Tech- 
nology 

Albert  Sauvetjr 

Harvard  University 
Geography 
Wm.  M.  Davis 

Harvard  University 

R.  H.  Whitbeck 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Geology  (including  Mineral- 
ogy, Petrology,  and  Pa- 
laeontology) 
Thos.  C.  Chamberlin 

University  of  Chicago 

U.  S.  Grant 

Northwestern  University 

Wm.  H.  Hobbs 

University  of  Michigan 

Henry  F.  Osborn 

Columbia  University 

S.  W.  Williston 

University  of  Chicago 

Alex.  N.  Winchell 

University  of  Wisconsin 

History 
Charles  H.  Haskins 

Harvard  University 

James  A.  James 

Northwestern  University 


Andrew  C.  McLaughlin 

University  of  Chicago 

Dana  C.  Munro 

Princeton  University 

J.  T.  Shotwell 

Columbia  University 
Law 
Joseph  H.  Beale 

Harvard  University 

Layton  B.  Register 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

MuNROE  Smith 

Columbia  University 

John  H.  Wigmore 

Northwestern  University 

Mathematics 
David  R.  Curtiss 

Northwestern  University 

Thos.  F.  Holgate 

Northwestern  University 

Eliakim  H.  Moore 

University  of  Chicago 

E.  B.  Wilson 

Massachusetts    Institute    of 
Technology 

Medicine  (including  Physi- 
ology, Pathology,  Medi- 
cine, Surgery,  and 
Neurology) 

Llewellys  F.  Barker 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Arthur  D.  Be  van 

University  of  Chicago 

Frederick  P.  Gay 

University  of  California 


LIST  OF  AUTHORS 


XV 


Wm.  H.  Howell 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Theodore  C.  Janeway 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Hugh  T.  Patrick 

Northwestern  University 

D.  B.  Phemister 

University  of  Chicago 

Morton  Prince 

Tufts  CoUege 
Wm.  S.  Thayer 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Philology,  Classical 
Wm.  Gardner  Hale 

University  of  Chicago 

E.  K.  Rand 

Harvard  University 

John  A.  Scott 

Northwestern  University 
Philology,  Romance 
Charles  H.  Grandgent 

Harvard  University 

H.  R.  Lang 

Yale  University 

Kenneth  McKenzie 

University  of  Illinois 

Raymond  Weeks 

Columbia  University 
Philology,  Oriental 
Franklin  Edgerton 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

E.  Washburn  Hopkins 

Yale  University 

Charles  R.  Lanman 

Harvard  University 


Philology,  Semitic 
J.  R.  Jewett 

Harvard  University 

Charles  C.  Torrey 

Yale  University 

Philology,  English 
Arthur  C.  L.  Brown 

Northwestern  University 

RoLLO  W.  Brown 

Wabash  College 

John  L.  Lowes 

Washington  University 

Philosophy 
Ralph  B.  Perry 

Harvard  University 

James  H.  Tufts 

University  of  Chicago 

Charles  B.  Vibbert 

University  of  Michigan 

R.  M.  Wenley 

University  of  Michigan 
Physics 
Henry  Crew 

Northwestern  University 

A.  A.  MiCHELSON 
University  of  Chicago 

Wallace  C.  Sabine 

Harvard  University 

Political  Science  (including 
Economics  and  Inter- 
national Law) 

James  W.  Garner 

University  of  Illinois 

Leon  C.  Marshall 

University  of  Chicago 


XVI 


LIST  OF  AUTHORS 


Jesse  S.  Reeves 

University  of  Michigan 

Abbott  P.  Usher 

Cornell  University 

Psychology 

James  R.  Angell 

University  of  Chicago 

Robert  H.  Gault 

Northwestern  University 

Religion 

George  B.  Foster 

University  of  Chicago 

Norman  B.  Nash 

Episcopal  Theological  School 
(Cambridge) 

Sociology 
Thomas  N.  Carver 

Harvard  University 


Frederick  S.  Deibler 

Northwestern  University 

Franklin  H.  Giddings 

Columbia  University 

Edward  A.  Ross 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Zoology 

Gary  N.  Calkins 

Columbia  University 

Frank  R.  Lillie 

University  of  Chicago 

Wm.  a.  Locy 

Northwestern  University 
Appendix 
James  Geddes,  Jr. 

Boston  University 

Charles  B.  Vibbert 

University  of  Michigan 


Officers  of  the  Authors'  Qommittee 
John  H.  Wigmore  Charles  H.  Grandgent 


Northwestern  University 
Chairman 


Harvard  University 
Vice-Chairman 


Sditor 
John  H.  Wigmore 

Northwestern  University 


List  of  Sponsors 


These  American  scholars  have  expressed  a  cordial  desire  to  join 
with  the  Authors  in  making  this  hook  a  national  homage y  offered 
from  the  Universities  of  America  to  the  Universities  of  France: 


G.  G.  Abbot 

Smithsonian  Institution 

Frank  Frost  Abbott 
Princeton  University 

J.  F.  Abbott 

Washington  University 

W.  C.  Abbott 

Yale  University 

Isaac  A.  Abt 

Northwestern  .University 

C.  D.  Adams 

Dartmouth  College 

E.  D.  Adams 

Leland  Stanford  University 

Edward  L.  Adams 
University  of  Michigan 

G.  B.  Adams 
Yale  University 

Joseph  Q.  Adams,  Jr. 
Cornell  University 

Thomas  S.  Adams 

Yale  University 

R.  G.  AlTKEN 
Lick  Observatory 

Homer  Albers 

Boston  University 

Raymond  M.  Alden 

Leland  Stanford  University 

H.  B.  Alexander 

University  of  Nebraska 

Charles  E.  Allen 
University  of  Wisconsin 

Clifford  G.  Allen 

Leland  Stanford  University 


R.  C.  Allen  ^ 

State  Geologist  of  Michigan 

Cephas  D.  Allin 

University  of  Minnesota 

Francis  G.  Allinson 

Brown  University 

Hector  Alliot 

Southwest  Museum 

C.  W.  Alvord 

University  of  Illinois 

Joseph  S.  Ames 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

F.  M.  Anderson 
Dartmouth  College 

CM.  Andrews 
Yale  University 

E.  Wyllys  Andrews 
Northwestern  University 

J.  N.  Anderson 

University  of  Florida 

J.  S.  Ankeny 

University  of  Missouri 

C.  F.  Ansley 

University  of  Iowa 

R.  C.  Archibald 

Brown  University 

A.  C.  Armstrong 

Wesleyan  University 

Edward  C,  Armstrong 
Johns  Hopkins  University 

Joseph  C.  Arthur 
Purdue  University 

George  F.  Atkinson 

Cornell  University 


xvu 


XVUl 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


C.  B.  Atwell 

Northwestern  University 

Wallace  W.  Atwood 
Harvard  University 

George  D.  Ayers 

University  of  Idaho 

F.  C.  Babbitt 

Trinity  College 

Earle  B.  Babcock 

New  York  University 

Herman  Babson 

Purdue  University 

B.  W.  Bacon 

Yale  University 

Grace  M.  Bacon 

Mt.  Holyoke  College 

Edward  P.  Baillot 

Northwestern  University 

Geo.  p.  Baker 

Harvard  University 

C.  S.  Baldwin 

Columbia  University 

Allan  P.  Ball 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

Margaret  Ball 
Mt.  Holyoke  College 

Thomas  Barbour 

Harvard  University 

Charles  R.  Bardeen 

University  of  Wisconsin 

E.  E.  Barnard 

Yerkes  Observatory 

G.  E.  Barnett 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Winfield  S.  Barney 

Pennsylvania  College 

Jos.  Barrell 

Yale  University 

Leroy  C.  Barret 

Trinity  College 

Albert  M.  Barrett 

University  of  Michigan 

George  A.  Barton 

Bryn  Mawr  College 

Florence  Bascom 
Bryn  Mawr  College 


O.  H.  Basquin 

Northwestern  University 

S.  E.  Bassett 

University  of  Vermont 

Henry  M.  Bates 
University  of  Michigan 

Katherine  L.  Bates 

Wellesley  College 

W.  N.  Bates 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

W.  J.  Battle 

University  of  Texas 

Paul  Baur 

Yale  University 

Jean  B.  Beck 

Bryn  Mawr  College 
Scott  E.  W.  Bedford 

University  of  Chicago 
Harold  H.  Bender 

Princeton  University 
Henry  Marvin  Belden 

University  of  Missouri 
Harris  M.  Benedict 

University  of  Cincinnati 
R,  R.  Bensley 

University  of  Chicago 
Charles  E.  Bennett 

Cornell  University 

L.  L.  Bernard 

University  of  Missouri 

E.  Bernbaum 
University  of  Illinois 

Andre  Beziat 

Tulane  University 
H.  A.  BiGELOW 

University  of  Chicago 
Herman  M.  Biggs 

New  York  University 

C.  p.  Bill 

Western  Reserve  University 

F.  H.  Billings 
University  of  Kansas 

W.  V.  Bingham 

Carnegie  Institute 
Hiram  Bingham 

Yale  University 

G.  D.  BlRKHOFF 
Harvard  University 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


XIX 


David  H.  Bishop 

University  of  Mississippi 

F.  W.  Blackmar 

University  of  Kansas 

Eliot  Blackwelder 

University  of  Illinois 

G.  A.  Bliss 
University  of  Chicago 

D.  S.  Blondheim 
University  of  Illinois 

Joseph  C.  Bloodgood 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Ernest  L.  Bogart 
University  of  Illinois 

M.  T.  BOGERT 

Columbia  University 

Geo.  H.  Boke 

University  of  California 

H.  E.  Bolton 

University  of  California 

Alexander  L.  Bondurant 

University  of  Mississippi 

R.  J.  Bonner 

University  of  Chicago 

Percy  Bordwell 

University  of  Iowa 

J.  L.  BORGERHOFF 

Western  Reserve  University 

Benjamin  P.  Bourland 
Western  Reserve  University 

Caroline  B.  Bourland 

Smith  College 

H.  E.  Bourne 

Western  Reserve  University 

Archibald  L.  Bouton 

New  York  University 

Benjamin  L.  Bo  wen 
Ohio  State  University 

E,  W.  Bowen 

Randolph-Macon  College 

Isaiah  Bowman 

American  Geographical  Society 

Jean  C.  Bracq 

Vassar  College 

Edgar  E.  Brandon 

Miami  University 


John  C.  Branner 

Stanford  University 
James  H.  Breasted 

University  of  Chicago 

W.  T.  Brewster 

Columbia  University 

J.  R.  Brackett 

Harvard  University 

P.  W.  Bridgman 

Harvard  University 

Thomas  H.  Briggs 
Columbia  University 

A.  P.  Brigham 
Colgate  University 

Isabelle  Bronk 
Swarthmore  College 

Walter  C.  Bronson 
Brown  University 

A.  H.  Brooks 

United  States  Geological  Survey 

Alfred  M.  Brooks 

Indiana  University 

Carleton  Brown 

University  of  Minnesota 

E.  V.  L.  Brown 

University  of  Chicago 

E.  W.  Brown 

Yale  University 

Frederic  W.  Brown 

Bowdoin  College 
Harry  G.  Brown 

University  of  Missouri 

Philip  M.  Brown 
Princeton  University 

Charles  A.  Bruce 
Ohio  State  University 

J.  Douglas  Bruce 

University  of  Tennessee 

Henry  R.  Brush 

University  of  North  .Dakota 

M.  P.  Brush 

Johns  Hopkins  University 
W.  F.  Bryan 

Northwestern  University 

H.  G.  Bryant 

Philadelphia  Geographical  Society 


XX 


LIST  OF   SPONSORS 


Carl  D.  Buck 

University  of  Chicago 

Gertrude  Buck 

Vassar  College 
Douglas  L.  Buffum 

Princeton  University 

Charles  J.  Bullock 

Harvard  University 

Hermon  C.  Bumpus 

Tufts  College 

W.  L.  BURDICK 

University  of  Kansas 

George  L.  Burr 

Cornell  University 

E.  D.  Burton 

University  of  Chicago 

Harry  E.  Burton 

Dartmouth  College 

Henry  F.  Burton 
University  of  Rochester 

Richard  Burton 

University  of  Minnesota 

Stephen  H.  Bush 

University  of  Iowa 

W.  T.  Bush 

Columbia  University 

Frederick  A.  Bushee 
University  of  Colorado 

Nicholas  M.  Butler 

Columbia  University 

Henry  T.  Byford 
University  of  Illinois 

S.  Calvert 

University  of  Missouri 

W.  W.  Campbell 

Lick  Observatory 

Arthur  G.  Canfield 

University  of  Michigan 

Walter  B.  Cannon 
Harvard  University 

Edward  Capps 

Princeton  University 

A.  J.  Carlson 

University  of  Chicago 

D.  H.  Carnahan 
University  of  Illinois 


E.  C.  Case 

University  of  Michigan 

Julia  H.  Caverno 

Smith  College 

J.  McKeen  Cattell 

Columbia  University 

Barry  Cert 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Lyman  Chalkley 

Kentucky  University 

Robert  Chambers,  Jr. 

Cornell  University 

Frank  W.  Chandler 
University  of  Cincinnati 

A.  C.  Chapin 
Wellesley  College 

F.  Stuart  Chapin 

Smith  College 

C.  E.  Chapman 

University  of  California 

Mabel  A.  Chase 
Mt.  Holyoke  College 

W.  H.  Chenery 

Washington  University 

Frederick  D.  Cheydleur 

Williams  College 

E.  P.  Cheyney 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

Clarence  G.  Child 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

CM.  Child 

University  of  Chicago 

Gilbert  Chinard 

University  of  California 

Henry  C.  Christian 
Harvard  University 

Geo.  B.  Churchill 
Amherst  College 

Philip  H.  Churchman 
Clark  College 

Edward  B.  Clapp 

University  of  Cahfornia 

Charles  C.  Clarke 

Yale  University 

Walter  E.  Clark 
University  of  Chicago 


LIST  OF   SPONSORS 


XXI 


Walter  E.  Clark 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

Wm.  B.  Clark 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Albert  T.  Clay 

Yale  University 

Harold  L.  Cleasby 

Syracuse  University 

Frederic  E.  Clements 

University  of  Minnesota 

Harry  E.  Clifford 

Harvard  University 

George  A.  Coe 

Union  Theological  Seminary 

Victor  Coffin 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Lotus  D.  Coffman 

University  of  Minnesota 

William  M.  Cole 

Harvard  University 

C.  B.  Coleman 
Butler  College 

William  W.  Comfort 

Cornell  University 

J.  R.  Commons 

University  of  Wisconsin 

G.  C.  COMSTOCK 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Clara  Conklin 

University  of  Nebraska 

E.  G.  Conklin 

Princeton  University 

Walter  W.  Cook 
Yale  University 

Charles  H.  Cooley 

University  of  Michigan 
A.   C.  COOLIDGE 

Harvard  University 

James  W.  Cooper 

Whitman  College 
W.   F.   COOVER 

Iowa  College  of  Agriculture 

C.  L.  Cory 

University  of  California 

Geo.  p.  Costigan,  Jr. 

Northwestern  University 

E.  S.  Cor  win 

Princeton  University 


Stanley  Coulter 

Purdue  University 

Frederick  V.  Coville 

United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture 

Henry  C.  Cowles 

University  of  Chicago 

Wm.  L.  Cowles 

Amherst  College 

Elizabeth  B.  Cowley 

Vassar  College 

C.  W.  Grand  ALL 

University  of  Florida 

R.  S.  Crane 

Northwestern  University 

J.    P.    WiCKERSHAM  CrAWFORD 
University  of  Pennsylvania 

J.  E.  Creighton 

Cornell  University 

A.  L.  Cross 

University  of  Michigan 

Whitman  Cross 

United  States  Geological  Survey 

W.  L.  Cross 

Yale  University 

F.  B.  Crossley 

Northwestern  University 

Ellwood  p.  Cubberley 
Standford  University 

J.    W.    CUNLIFFE 
Columbia  University 

W.  C.  Curtis 

University  of  Missouri 
Harvey    Gushing 
Harvard  University 

R.  A.  Daly 

Harvard  University 

Lindsay  T.  Damon 

Brown  University 

Edward  S.  Dana 

Yale  University 
Francis  Daniels 

University  of  Missouri 

E.  p.  Dargan 

University  of  Chicago 
Henri  C.  David 
University  of  Chicago 


XXll 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


W.  J.  Davidson 

Northwestern  University 

Br.\dley  M.  Davis 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

D.  J.  Davis 

University  of  Illinois 

W.  W.  Davis 

University  of  Kansas 

E.  Dawson 

Hunter  College 
Edmund  E.  Day 

Harvard  University 

James  Q.  Dealey 
Brown  University 

Louis  Delamarre 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

J.  B.  De  Lee 

Northwestern  University. 

Wm.  K.  Denison 

Tufts  College. 

Ralph  B.  Dennis 

Northwestern  University 

A.  L.  P.  Dennis 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Joseph  V.  Denn-ey 
Ohio  State  University 

Samuel  C.  Derby 

Ohio  State  University 

Edward  T.  Devine 
Columbia  University 

H.  J.  Devonport 

Cornell  University 

William  M.  Dey 

University  of  North  Carolina 

Sherwood  O.  Dickerman 

Williams  College 

L.  E.  Dickson 

University  of  Chicago 

Frank  H.  Dixon 
Dartmouth  College 

R.  B.  Dixon 

Harvard  University 

Eleanor  C.  Doak 

Mt.  Holyoke  College 

Armistead  M.  Dobie 

University  of  Virginia 


George  Dock 

Washington  University 

W.    E.    DODD 

University  of  Chicago 

Daniel  K.  Dodge 

University  of  Illinois 

J.  M.  Dodson 

University  of  Chicago 

Gaston  Douay 

Washington  University 

Earle  W.  Dow 

University  of  Michigan 

Charles  A.  Downer 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

E.  C.  Dudley 

Northwestern  University 

Benjamin  M.  Duggar 
Missouri  Botanical  Garden 

Knight  Dunlap 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Edward  D.  Durand 

University  of  Minnesota 

Charles  L.  Durham 
Cornell  University 

George  M.  Dutcher 

Wesleyan  University 

E.  L.  Earp 

Drew  Theological  Seminary 

E.  M.  East 

Harvard  University 

De  la  Warr  B.  Easter 

Washington  and  Lee  University 

Frederick  C.  Eastman 
University  of  Iowa 

LuciLE  Eaves 

Simmons  College 

David  L.  Edsall 

Massachusetts  General  Hospital 

James  C.  Egbert 

Columbia  University 

C.    H.    ElGENMANN 
University  of  Indiana 

L.   P.   ElSENHART 
Princeton  University 

J.  B.  Ekeley 

University  of  Colorado 


LIST  OF   SPONSORS 


XXIU 


Eloise  Ellery 

Vassar  College 

A.  Caswell  Ellis 

University  of  Texas 

Ellen  D.  Ellis 
Mt.  Holyoke  College 

Charles  A.  Ellwood 

University  of  Missouri 

Herbert  C.  Elmer 

Cornell  University 

J.  Elmore 

Leland  Stanford  University 

R.  T.  Ely 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Benjamin  K.  Emerson 
Amherst  College 

C.  P.  Emerson 

University  of  Indiana 

Oliver  F.  Emerson 

Western  Reserve  University 

S,  F.  Emerson 

University  of  Vermont 

Fred.  Parker  Emery 

Dartmouth  College 

Joseph  Erlanger 

Washington  University 

F.  A.  C.  Ernst 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Harold  C.  Ernst 

Harvard  University 

John  Erskine 

Columbia  University 

H,  M.  Evans 

University  of  California 

Frank  C.  Ewart 

Colgate  University 

B.  C.  Ewer 
Pomona  College 

James  Ewing 
Cornell  University 

Arthur  Fairbanks 

Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts 

H.  R.  Fairclough 

Leland  Stanford  University 

J.  A.  Fairlie 

University  of  Illinois 


Edith  Fahne  stock 
Vassar  College 

W.  C.  Farabee 

University  of  Pensylvania 

Frank  E.  Farley 
Simmons  College 

William  G.  Farlow 
Harvard  University 

H.  W.  Farnam 
Yale  University 

William  O.  Farnsworth 
University  of  Pittsburgh 

Max  Farrand 
Yale  University 

Charles  E.  Fay 
Tufts  College 

Edwin  W.  Fay 
University  of  Texas 

Percival  B.  Fay 

University  of  California 

N.  M.  Fenneman 

University  of  Cincinnati 

W.  S.  Ferguson 

Harvard  University 

F.  A.  Fetter 

Princeton  University 

J.  Walter  Fewkes 

United  States  National  Museum 
J.  A.  Field 

University  of  Chicago 
John  H.  Finley 

New  York  State  Education  De- 
partment 
C.  R.  Fish 

University  of  Wisconsin 
Irving  Fisher 
Yale  University 

Christabel  F.  Fiske 

Vassar  College 

Geo.  C.  Fiske 

University  of  Wisconsin 
Thos.  S.  Fiske 

Columbia  University 
John  D.  Fitz-Gerald 

University  of  Illinois 
John  D.  Fleming 

University  of  Colorado 


XXIV 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


J.  B.  Fletcher 

Columbia  University 

Robert  H.  Fletcher 
Grinnell  College 

F.  M.  Fling 

University  of  Nebraska 

Guy  S.  Ford 

University  of  Minnesota 

Henry  J.  Ford 

Princeton  University 

J.  D.  M.  Ford 

Harvard  University 

James  Ford 

Harvard  University 

H.    E.    W.    FOSBROKE 

General  Theological  Seminary 

Benjamin  0.  Foster 

Leland  Stanford  University 

H,  D.  Foster 
Dartmouth  College 

Frank  F.  Frantz 

Vanderbilt  University 

Pierre  J.  Frein 

University  of  Washington 

Edwin  B.  Frost 

Yerkes  Observatory 

Theodore  C.  Frye 

University  of  Washington 

Carollne  E.  Furness 
Vassar  College 

Charles  S.  Gager 

Brooklyn  Botanical  Garden 

Eugenie  Galloo 

University  of  Kansas 

Stanley  L.  Galpin 

Trinity  College 

Caroline  M.  Galt 
yit.  Holyoke  College 

W.  E.  Gamble 

University  of  Illinois 

H.  N.  Gardiner 

Smith  College 

Christian  Gauss 
Princeton  University 

E.  F.  Gay 

Harvard  University 


Charles  M.  Gayley 

University  of  California 

William  F.  Gephart 
Washington  University 

J.  L.  Gerig 

Columbia  University 

Gordon  H.  Gerould 

Princeton  University 

A.    R.    GiFFORD 

University  of  Vermont 

Basil  L.  Gildersleeve 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Eugene  A.  Gilmore 
University  of  Wisconsin 

O.  C.  Glaser 

University  of  Michigan 

William  H.  Glasson 

Trinity  College 

Harold  C.  Goddard 

Swarthmore  College 

P.  E.  Goddard 

American    Museum    of    Natural 
History 

A.  J.  Goldfarb 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

J.  Paul  Goode 

University  of  Chicago 

Thomas  D.  Goodell 

Yale  University 

Frank  J.  Goodnow 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

E.  J.  Goodspeed 

University  of  Chicago 

Nolan  A.  Goodyear 

Emory  University 

Harry  M.  Gordin 

Northwestern  University 

Richard  J.  H.  Gottheil 

Columbia  University 

Caswell  Grave 

Johns  Hopkins  University 
C.  A.  Graves 

University  of  Virginia 

John  H.  Gray 

University  of  Minnesota 
R.  P.  Gray 

University  of  Maine 


LIST  OF   SPONSORS 


XKV 


Louis  M.  Greeley 

Northwestern  University 

EvARTS  B.  Greene 

University  of  Illinois 

Herbert  E.  Greene 
Johns  Hopkins  University 

Edwin  Greenland 

University  of  North  Carolina 

Chester  N.  Greenough 

Harvard  University 

G.  G.  Groat 

University  of  Vermont 

G.  Grojean 

Leland  Stanford  University 

Clipford  G.  Grulee 
University  of  Chicago 

F.   B.    GUMMERE 
Haverford  College 

Foster  E.  Guyer 

Dartmouth  College 

Arthur  T.  Hadley 
Yale  University 

A.  S.  Haggett 

University  of  Washington 

Elizabeth  H.  Haight 
Vassar  CoUege 

E.  E.  Hale 

Union  CoUege 

EowaN  H.  Hall 

Harvard  University 

J.  P.  Hall 

University  of  Chicago 

Wineield  S.  Hall 

Northwestern  University 

Albert  E.  Halstead 

University  of  Illinois 

Theodore  E.  Hamilton 
University  of  Ohio 

W.  H.  Hamilton 

Amherst  University 

M.    B.   HAMM0NT5 
Ohio  State  University 

Frank  H.  Hankins 

Clark  University 

Irving  Hardesty 
Tulane  University 


Samuel  B.  Harding 

University  of  Indiana 

C.  W.  ILirgitt 

Syracuse  University 

Herbert  Harley 

Northwestern  University 

Robert  A.  Harper 

Columbia  University 

Karl  P.  Harrington 

Wesleyan  University 

Philip  W.  Harry 
Colby  CoUege 

John  W.  HLarshberger 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

Albert  B.  Hart 
Harvard  University 

B.  C.  H.  R\rvey 

University  of  Chicago 

Carlton  J.  H.  Hayes 

Columbia  University 

DOREMUS   A.   HLA.YES 
Northwestern  University 

E.  C.  Hayes 

University  of  lUinois 

John  F.  Hayford 

Northwestern  University 

E.  R.  Hedrick 
University  of  ^lissouri 

L.  Heetoen 

University  of  Chicago 

F.  B.  R.  Hellems 
University  of  Colorado 

Geo.  L.  Hent3rickson 

Yale  University 

George  N.  Henxing 

George  Washington  University 

C,  J.  Herrick 

University  of  Chicago 

James  B.  Herrick 

University  of  Chicago 

Amos  S.  Hershey 

University  of  Indiana 

Amy  He  WES 

Mt.  Holyoke  CoUege 

A.  W.  Hewtlett 

Leland  Stanford  University 


XXVI 


LIST  OF   SPONSORS 


John  G.  Hibben 

Princeton  University 

F.  C.  HiCHS 

University  of  Cincinnati 

HiNDA  T.  Hill 

North   Carolina  Normal   College 

John  Hill 

University  of  Indiana 

Elijah  C.  Hills 

Colorado  College 

Murray  A.  Hines 

Northwestern  University 

Edward  W.  Hinton 

University  of  Chicago 

W.  E.  Hocking 

Harvard  University 

F,  H.  Hodder 

University  of  Kansas 

Wesley  N.  Hohfeld 

Yale  University 

R.   T.    HOLBROOK 
Haverford  College 

A.  D.  Hole 
Earlham  College 

E.  H.  Hollands 
University  of  Kansas 

Jacob  H.  Hollander 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Henry  W.  Holmes 
Harvard  University 

S.  J.  Holmes 

University  of  California 

W.  H.  Holmes 

United  States  National  Museum 

Donald  Hooker 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

E.  A.  HooTON 

Harvard  University 

Hugo  C.  Horack 

University  of  Iowa 

R,  G.  HosKiNS 

Northwestern  University 

W.    E.    HOTCHKISS 

Northwestern  University 

William  O.  Hotchkiss 
Wisconsin  State  Geologist 


Lynn  H.  Hough 

Northwestern  University 

Theodore  Hough 

University  of  Virginia 

George  E.  Howard 
University  of  Nebraska 

George  Howe 

University  of  North  Carolina 

W.  D.  Howe 

University  of  Indiana 

Geo.  E.  Howes 

Williams  College 

William  Hoynes 

University  of  Notre  Dame 

Ales  Hrdlicka 

United  States  National  Museum 

F.  G.  Hubbard 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Hector  J.  Hughes 

Harvard  University 

E.  M.  Hulme 

University  of  Idaho 

W.  H.  Hulme 

Western  Reserve  University 

Charles  H.  Hunkins 

Brown  University 

Reid  Hunt 

Harvard  University 

T.  Whitefield  Hunt 

Princeton  University 

W.   J.    HUSSEY 

Detroit  Observatory 

C.  A.  Huston 

Stanford  University 
H.  B.  Hutchins 

University  of  Michigan 

J.  L.  Hutchinson 
Cornell  University 

Chas.  Cheney  Hyde 

Northwestern  University 

Roscoe  R.  Hyde 
Indiana  Normal  School 

Jos.  p.  Iddings 

University  of  Chicago 

E.  F.  Ingals 

University  of  Chicago 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


xxvu 


Alexander  J.  Inglis 

Harvard  University 

E.  S.  Ingraham 
University  of  Ohio 

Edmund  J.  James 

University  of  Illinois 

J.  Franklin  Jamie  son 
Carnegie  Institution 

T.  A.  Jenkins 

University  of  Chicago 

Jeremiah  W.  Jenks 
New  York  University 

H.  S.  Jennings 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

M. W.  Jernegan 

University  of  Chicago 

Elmer  E.  Jones 

Northwestern  University 

Guernsey  Jones 

University  of  Nebraska 

H.  C.  Jones 

University  of  West  Virginia 

Lewis  R.  Jones 

»  University  of  Wisconsin 

Wm.  Carey  Jones 

University  of  California 

Alvin  S.  Johnson 

Leiand  Stanford  University 
D.  W.  Johnson 

Columbia  University 

George  E.  Johnson 

Harvard  University 

H.  Johnson 

Bowdoin  University 

Henry  Johnson 

New  York  Teachers  College 

J.  B.  Johnston 

University  of  Minnesota 

Daniel  Jordan 

Columbia  University 

Harvey  E.  Jordan 

University  of  Virginia 

Harry  Pratt  Judson 

University  of  Chicago 

A.  B.  Kanavel 

Northwestern  University 


I.  L.  Kandel 

Columbia  University 

Edward  Kasner 

Columbia  University 

G.  F.  Kay 

University  of  Iowa 

Edwin  R.  Keedy 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

A.  H.  Keller 

Yale  University 

W.  E.  Kellicott 
Goucher  College 

Geo.  Dwight  Kellogg 

Union  University 

Howard  A.  Kelly 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

F.  W.  Kelsey 

University  of  Michigan 

Edwin  W.  Kemmerer 

Princeton  University 

Jos.  F.  Kemp 

Columbia  University 

Arthur  I.  Kendall 

Northwestern  University 

W.  S.  Kendall 

Yale  University 

Arthur  E.  Kennelly 

Harvard  University 

C.  W.  Kent 

University  of  Virginia 

Roland  G.  Kent 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

Andrew  Keogh 

Yale  University 
Alexander  M.  Kidd 

University  of  California 

W.  H.  Kiekhofer 

University  of  Wisconsin 

J.    S.    KiNGSLEY 

University  of  Illinois 

David  Kinley 

University  of  Illinois 

Joseph  E.  Kirkwood 

University  of  Montana 

Charles  Knapp 

Columbia  University 


xx\au 

Henry  IMcE.  Knower 

University  of  Cincinnati 

C.   A.    KOFOID 

University  of  California 

G.  p.  Kropp 

Columbia  University 

G.  T.  Ladd 

Yale  University 
Theodore  de  Lacuna 

Bryn  J^Iawr  College 

Gordon  J.  Lmng 

University  of  Chicago 
A.  G.  Laird 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Henry  C.  Lancaster 
Amherst  College 

Alfred  C.  Lane 

Tufts  College 

O.  W.  Lane 

Tufts  College 

Courtney  Langdon 

Brown  University 

Ernest  F.  LA>iCLEY 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology 

James  L.  Lardner 

Northwestern  University 

W.  W.  Lawrence 

Columbia  University 

Abby  Leach 

Vassar  College 

Irville  C.  Lecompte 

Yale  University 
Geo.  Lefevre 

University  of  Missouri 

J.  A.  Leighton 

Ohio  State  University 

W.  G.  Leland 

American  Historical  Association 

J.  E.  Le  Rossignol 

University  of  Nebraska 

A.  O.  Leuschner 
University  of  California 

MoRiTZ  Levi 

University  of  Michigan 

Charlton  M.  Lewis 
Yale  University 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


E.  Percival  Lewis 
University  of  California 

G.  N.  Lewis 

University  of  California 

I.  F.  Lewis 

University  of  Virginia 

William  Draper  Lewis 
University  of  Pennsylvania 

WiNFORD  L.  Lewis 

Northwestern  University 

M,    F.    LiBBY 

University  of  Colorado 

J.    P.    LiCHTENBERGER 
University  of  Pennsylvania 

William  M.  Lile 
University  of  Virginia 

Samuel  M.  Lindsay 

Columbia  University 

W.    E.    LiNGELBACH 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

A.  A.  Livingston 

Columbia  University 

Burton  E.  Livingston 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

A.  H.  Lloyd 

University  of  Michigan 

F.   C.   LOCKWOOD 
University  of  Arizona 

L.  E.  Lockwood 

Wellesley  College 

Gonzales  Lodge 
Columbia  University 

Louis  A.  Loiseaux 

Columbia  University 

John  H.  Long 

Northwestern  University 

O.  Floyd  Long 

Northwestern  University 

W.  T.  Longcope 

Columbia  University 

Horace  C.  Longwell 

Princeton  University 

Louis  E.  Lord 

Oberlin  College 

J.  E.  Lough 

New  York  University 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


XXIX 


A.   O.   LOVEJOY 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

E.  O.   LOVETT 
Rice  Institute 

A.  Lawrence  Lowell 

Harvard  University 

W.  H.  Loyd 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

W.    E.    LUNT 

Cornell  University 

F.  B.  Luquiens 
Yale  University 

Joseph  Lustrat 

University  of  Georgia 

Peter  C.  Lutkin 

Northwestern  University 

Frank  E,  Lutz 

American    Museum    of    Natural 
History 

A,  H.  Lybyer 

University  of  Illinois 

Matthew  C.  Lynch 
University  of  California 

Margaret  Lynn 

University  of  Kansas 
H.  L.  McBain 

Columbia  University 

W.  D,  MacClintock 
University  of  Chicago 

C.  E.  McClung 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

Duncan  B.  MacDonald 

Hartford  Theological  Seminary 

Daniel  T.  MacDougal 

Desert  Laboratory 
R.  M.  MacDougall 

New  York  University 
Thomas  McCrae 

Jefferson  Medical  School 
Nelson  G.  McCrea 

Columbia  University 

Walton  B.  McDaniel 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

E.  B.  McGilvary 
University  of  Wisconsin 

H.  McGuigan 

Northwestern  University 


Anna  J.  McKeag 

Wellesley  College 

Hugh  M.  McKenna 

University  of  Illinois 

William  McPherson 
Ohio  State  University 

G.  H.  McKnight 

Ohio  State  University 

W.  R.  Mackenzie 

Washington  University 

O.  H.  Maclay 

Northwestern  University 

J.   J.    R.    MACLEOD 

Western  Reserve  University 

Grace  H.  Macurdy 

Vassar  College 

Jesse  Macy 

Grinnell  College 
William  F.  Magie 

Princeton  University 

R.  V.  D.  Magoffin 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

George  C.  Manly 
University  of  Denver 

J.  M.  Manly 

University  of  Chicago 

W.  R.  Manning 
University  of  Texas 

C.  Carroll  Marden 

Princeton  University 

Antonio  Mariononi 

University  of  Arkansas 

Edward  L.  Mark 
Harvard  University 

Lionel  S.  Marks 
Harvard  University 

Clarence  S.  Marsh 

Northwestern  University 
Paul  L.  Martin 

Creighton  University 

E.  Whitney  Martin 
Leland  Stanford  University 

James  F.  Mason 

Cornell  University 

Frank  J.  Mather 

Princeton  University 


XXX 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


A.  P.  Mathews 

University  of  Chicago 

Shailer  Mathews 
University  of  Chicago 

Brander  Matthews 
Columbia  University 

Alfred  G.  Mayer 

Princeton  University 

Geo.  H.  Mead 

University  of  Chicago 

W.  E.  Mead 

Wesleyan  University 

Alexander  Meiklejohn 
Amherst  College 

J.  C.  Merriam 

University  of  California 

Elmer  T.  Merrill 
University  of  Chicago 

Wm.  a.  Merrill 

University  of  California 

R,  B.  Merriman 

Harvard  University 

M.  M.  Metcalf 
Oberlin  College 

Adolf  Meyer 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Truman  Michelson 

United  States  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology 

Wm.  E.  Mikell 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

Robert  W.  Millar 

Northwestern  University 

G.  A.  Miller 

University  of  Illinois 

G.  M.  Miller 

Wabash  College 
R.  a.  Millikan 

University  of  Chicago 

Edwin  Mims 

Vanderbilt  University 
Stewart  L.  Mims 
Yale  University 

J.  B.  Miner 

Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology 

Raleigh  C.  Minor 
University  of  Virginia 


S.  A.  Mitchell 

University  of  Virginia 
Julien  C.  Monnet 

University  of  Oklahoma 

Paul  Monroe 

Columbia  University 

Wm.  p.  Montague 

Columbia  University 

J.  A.  Montgomery 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

A.  W.  Moore 

University  of  Chicago 

Clifford  H.  Moore 

Harvard  University 

Clarence  K.  Moore 

University  of  Rochester 

E.  S.  Moore 

Pennsylvania  State  College 
Frank  G.  Moore 

Columbia  University 

George  F.  Moore 

Harvard  University 

George  T.  Moore 

Washington  University 

J.  Leverett  Moore 

Vassar  College 

J.  P.  Moore 

University  of  Pennsylvania 
Adelbert  Moot 

University  of  Buffalo 

L.  T.  More 

University  of  Cincinnati 

S.  Griswold  Morley 

University  of  California 

George  D.  Morris 

University  of  Indiana 

W.  A.  Morris 

University  of  California 

Bernard  Moses 

University  of  California 
Clelia  D.  Mosher 

Leland  Stanford  University 

Lewis  A.  Mott 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

Elton  J.  Moulton 
Northwestern  University 

Wilfred  P.  Mustard 
Johns  Hopkins  University 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


XXXI 


Arthur  B.  Myrick 

University  of  Vermont 

H.  F.  Nachtrieb 

University  of  Minnesota 

H.  V.  Neal 

Tufts  CoUege 

W.  A.  Neilson 
Harvard  University 

AvEN  Nelson 

University  of  Wyoming 

Clara  A.  Nelson 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University 

G.  H.  Nettleton 
Yale  University 

William  R.  Newbold 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

Frederick  C.  Newcombe 

University  of  Michigan 

H.  H.  Newman 

University  of  Chicago 

A.  O.  Norton 
Wellesley  College 

Wallace  Notestein 
University  of  Minnesota 

Frederick  G.  Novy 
University  of  Michigan 

A.  A.  Noyes 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology 
W.  A.   NoYES 

University  of  Illinois 

H.  C.  Nutting 

University  of  California 

W.  F.  Ogburn 
Reed  CoUege 

F.  A.  Ogg 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Ida  H.  Ogilvie 

Columbia  University 

M.  B.  Ogle 

University  of  Vermont 

Thomas  E.  Oliver 

University  of  Illinois 

Everett  W.  Olmstead 

University  of  Minnesota 

Raymond  C.  Osburn 

Connecticut  College  for  Women 


Winthrop  J.  V.  Osterhout 

Harvard  University 

H.  A.  Overstreet 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

Arthur  L.  Owen 

University  of  Kansas 

Frederick  M.  Padelford 

University  of  Washington 

L.  J.  Paetow 

University  of  California 

Curtis  H.  Page 

Dartmouth  College 

Elizabeth  H.  Palmer 
Vassar  College 

George  H.  Palmer 
Harvard  University 

Dewitt  Parker 

University  of  Michigan 

Geo.  H.  Parker 

Harvard  University 

Horatio  Parker 

Yale  University 

Amos  W.  Patten 

Northwestern  University 

Wm.  Patten 

Dartmouth  College 

John  T.  Patteson 
University  of  Texas 

F.  L.  Paxson 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Charles  Peabody 

Harvard  University 

Raymond  Pearl 

Maine    Agricultural    Experiment 
Station 

Geo.  B.  Pegram 

Columbia  University 
Adeline  Pellissier 

Smith  College 
J.  H.  Penniman 

University  of  Pennsylvania 
B.  Perrin 

Yale  University 
Bliss  Perry 

Harvard  University 

A.  Petrunkevitch 
Yale  University 


xxxu 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


Ruth  S.  Phelps 

University  of  Minnesota 

WiLLiMi  L.  Phelps 

Yale  University 

F.  S.  Philbrick 

University  of  California 

John  Pickard 

University  of  Missouri 

Frank  H.  Pike 

Columbia  University 

W.  B.  Pillsbury 
University  of  Michigan 

Louis  V.  Pirsson 

Yale  University 
W.  B.  Pitkin 

Columbia  University 

Samuel  B.  Platner 

Adelbert  College 
William  V.  Pooley 

Northwestern  University 

W.  T.  Porter 
Harvard  University 

Edwin  Post 

De  Pauw  University 

Albert  K.  Potter 

Brown  University 

Mary  Ross  Potter 

Northwestern  University 

Louise  Pound 

University  of  Nebraska 

J.  B.  Pratt 

Williams  College 

W.  K.  Prentice 
Princeton  University 

Henry  S.  Pritchett 

Carnegie  Foundation  for  Teachers 

Lawrence  Pumpelly 

Cornell  University 

W.   A.   PUSEY 

University  of  Illinois 

RoBT.  S.  Radford 
University  of  Tennessee 

A.  P.  Raggio 

University  of  Maine 

S.  W.  Ransom 

Northwestern  University 


Frederick  L.  Ransome 

United  States  Geological  Survey 

Perley  O.  Ray 

Northwestern  University 

John  D.  Re  a 

Earlham  College 

Conyers  Read 

University  of  Chicago 

Byron  J.  Rees 

Williams  College 

Frank  O.  Reed 

University  of  Wisconsin 

W.  p.  Reeves 
Kenyon  College 

H.  F.  Reid 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

J.  E.  Reighard 

University  of  Michigan 

Ira  Remsen 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

E.  R.  Rensch 

Mount  Holyoke  College 

Edward  L.  Rice 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University 

John  P.  Rice 

Williams  College 

Richard  A.  Rice 

Smith  College 

Wm.  N.  Rice 

Wesleyan  University 

A.  N.  Richards 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

H.  S.  Richards 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Herbert  M.  Richards 
Columbia  University 

Joseph  W.  Richards 

Lehigh  University 

Theodore  W.  Richards 

Harvard  University 

Leon  J.  Richardson 
University  of  California 

Mary  L.  Richardson 

Smith  College 

W.  Z.  Ripley 

Harvard  University 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


xxxm 


D.  M.  Robinson 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Edward  Robinson 

New  York  Metropolitan  Museum 

Fred  N.  Robinson 

Harvard  University 

J.  H.  Robinson 
Columbia  University 

A.  K.  Rogers 
Yale  University 

John  C.  Rolfe 

University  of  Pennsylvania 
James  Hardy  Ropes 

Harvard  University 

W.  T.  Root 

University  of  Wisconsin 

M.  A,  Rosanoff  * 

University  of  Pittsburgh 

Eleanor  Rowland 
Reed  College 

C.  Rubner 

Columbia  University 

Geo.  H,  Sabine 

University  of  Missouri 

Joseph  Schafer 
University  of  Oregon 

Lucy  M.  Salmon 

Vassar  College 

Alfonso  de  Salvio 

Northwestern  University 

E.  B.  de  Sauze 
Temple  University 

R.  L.  Sanderson 

Yale  University 

J.    S.    SCHAPIRO 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

Felix  E.  Schelling 
University  of  Pennsylvania 

Albert  Schinz 

Smith  College 

E.  C.  Schmidt 

University  of  Illinois 

William  H.  Schofield 

Harvard  University 

J.  G.  Schurman 
Cornell  University 


F.  N.  Scott 

University  of  Michigan 

Mary  Augusta  Scott 

Smith  College 

W.  A.  Scott 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Wm.  B.  Scott 

Princeton  University 

ViDA  D.  Scudder 
Wellesley  College 

Jacob  B.  Segall 
University  of  Maine 

Colbert  Searles 

University  of  Minnesota 

Helen  M,  Searles 
Mt.  Holyoke  College 

C.  E.  Seashore 

State  University  of  Iowa 

Horace  Secrist 

Northwestern  University 

E.  R.  A.  Selignan 

Columbia  University 

G.  C.  Sellery 
University  of  Wisconsin 

William  A.  Setchell 

University  of  California 

Lewis  P.  Shanks 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

Edgar  F.  Shannon 

Washington  and  Lee  University 

Frank  C.  Sharp 

University  of  Wisconsin 

J.  B.  Shaw 

University  of  Illinois 
Edward  S.  Sheldon 

Harvard  University 

W.  H.  Sheldon 
Dartmouth  College 

William  P.  Shepard 
Hamilton  College 

F.  W.  Shepardson 

University  of  Chicago 

Lucius  A.  Sherman 
University  of  Nebraska 

Stuart  P.  Sherman 
University  of  Illinois 


XXXIV 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


Margaret  Sherwood 

Wellesley  College 

H.  W.  Shimer 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology 

F.  W.  Shipley 

Washington  University 

Paul  Shorey 

University  of  Chicago 

Grant  Showerman 

University  of  Wisconsin 

W.  H.  Siebert 

Ohio  State  University 

E.  G.  SniLER 

New  York  University 

V.  G.  Simkhovitch 

Columbia  University 

William  E.  Simonds 

Knox  College 

S.  Simpson 

Cornell  University 

F.  Slate 

University  of  California 

Moses  S.  Slaughter 
University  of  Wisconsin 

C.  S.  Slighter 

University  of  Wisconsin 

William  M.  Sloane 

Princeton  University 

A.  W.  Slocum 

University  of  Vermont 

Albion  W.  Small 

University  of  Chicago 
Charles  N.  Smiley 

Iowa  CoUege 
Alexander  Smith 

Columbia  University 

Bertram  G.  Smith 

Michigan  Normal  College 
Charles  Forster  Smith 

University  of  Wisconsin 

C.  Alphonso  Smith 

United  States  Naval  Academy 
Edgar  F,  Smith 

University  of  Pennslyvania 

Erwin  F.  Smith 

Department  of  Agriculture 


George  O.  Smith 

United  States  Geological  Survey 

H,  L.  Smith 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Harold  B.  Smith 

Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute 

Harry  De  F.  Smith 

Amherst  College 

Hugh  A.  Smith 

University  of  Wisconsin 

R.  Wilson  Smith 
McMaster  University 

Stanley  A.  Smith 

Leland  Stanford  University 

Warren  Du  Pre  Smith 
University  of  Oregon 

William  R.  Smith 
Bryn  Mawr  College 

Henry  L,  Smyth 

Harvard  University 

Herbert  W.  Smyth 
Harvard  University 

Guy  E.  Snavely 

Allegheny  College 

Ada  L.  T.  Snell 

Mt.  Holyoke  College 
Franklyn  B.  Snyder 

Northwestern  University 

Virgil  Snyder 

Cornell  University 

Edward  H.  Spieker  _ 

Johns  Hopkins  University 
William  G.  Spiller 
University  of  Pennsylvania 

H.  J.  Spinden 

American    Museum    of    Natural 
History 

C.  M.  Spofford 

Harvard  University 
Joel  Stebbins 

University  of  Illinois 

Oliver  M.  W.  Sprague 

Harvard  University 

Madison  Stathers 

University  of  West  Virginia 

D.  A.  K.  Steele 
University  of  Illinois 


LIST  OF  SPONSORS 


XXXM 


Frederic  C.  VanSteenderen 

Lake  Forest  College 

Frank  L.  Stevens 

University  of  Illinois 

G.  N.  Stewart 

Western  Reserve  University 

C.  R.  Stockard 

Cornell  University 

Anson  P.  Stokes 

Yale  University 

Elmer  E.  Stoll 

University  of  Minnesota 

Harlan  F.  Stone 

Columbia  University 

Ellery  C.  Stowell 

Columbia  University 

Richard  P.  Strong 

Harvard  University 

Charles  Macaulay  Stuart 

Northwestern  University 

DuANE  R.  Stuart 

Princeton  University 

H.  W.  Stuart 

Leland  Stanford  University 

Edson  R.  Sunderland 
University  of  Chicago 

A.  H.  Sutherland 
Yale  University 

George  F.  Swain 

Harvard  University 

Thos.  W.  Swan 

Yale  University 

J.  R.  Swanton 

Smithsonian  Institution 

Glen  L.  Swiggett 
University  of  Tennessee 

W.  O.  Sypherd 
Delaware  College 

Henry  Taber 

Clark  University 

William  H.  Taet 

Yale  University 

Ellen  B.  Talbot 
Mt.  Holyoke  College 

Marion  Talbot 
University  of  Chicago 


MiGNON  Talbot 

Mt.  Holyoke  College 

J.  H.  Tanner 
Cornell  University 

F.  B.  Tarbell 

University  of  Chicago 

J.  S.  P.  Tatlock 

Leland  Stanford  University 

Edward  W.  Taylor 

Harvard  University 

Robert  L.  Taylor 
Williams  College 

Olin  Templin 

University  of  Kansas 

A.  A.  Tenney 

Columbia  University 

Benjamin  S.  Terry 
University  of  Chicago 

H.  P.  Thieme 

University  of  Michigan 

Frank  Thilly 

Cornell  University 

Calvin  Thomas 

Columbia  University 

Joseph  M.  Thomas 

University  of  Minnesota 

C.  B.  Thompson 

Wellesley  College 

Ashley  H.  Thorndike 

Columbia  University 

E.  L.  Thorndike 

Columbia  University 

Charles  F.  Thwing 

Western  Reserve  University 

Ed.  S.  Thurston 

University  of  Minnesota 

E.  B.  Titchener 
Cornell  University 

H.  a.  Todd 

Columbia  University 

Albert  H.  Tolman 
University  of  Chicago 

Payson  J.  Treat 

Leland  Stanford  University 

William  Trelease 
University  of  Illinois 


XXXVIU 


LIST  OF   SPONSORS 


LiGHTNER   WiTMER 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

A.  B.  Wolfe 

University  of  Texas 

J.  E.  Wolff 

Harvard  University 

B.  M,    WOODBRIDGE 
University  of  Texas 

James  A.  Woodburn 

University  of  Indiana 

E.  H.  Woodruff 

Cornell  University 

L.  L.  Woodruff 

Yale  University 

James  H.  Woods 

Harvard  University 

Frederic  C.  Woodward 
University  of  Chicago 

J.  B.  Wood  WORTH 

Harvard  University 

T.   S.   WOOLSEY 
Yale  University 

Howard  Woolston 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

C.  H.  C.  Wright 

Harvard  University 

A.  S.  Wright 

Case  School  of  Applied  Science 

H,  W.  Wright 

Lake  Forest  University 

L.  J.  Wylie 
Vassar  College 


R.  M.  Yerkes 

Harvard  University 

Abram  Van  Epps  Young 

Northwestern  University 

Allyn  a.  Young 

Cornell  University 

Anne  S.  Young 
Mt.  Holyoke  College 

Bert  E.  Young 

Vanderbilt  University 

Charles  E.  Young 
Beloit  College 

Clarence  H.  Young 

Columbia  University 

J.  W.  Young 

Dartmouth  College 

J.  W.  A.  Young 
University  of  Chicago 

Karl  Young 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Mary  V.  Young 
Mt.  Holyoke  College 

Robert  T.  Young 

University  of  North  Dakota 

C.  S.  Zdanowicz 

University  of  Wisconsin 

C.  F.  Zeck,  Jr. 

Southern  Methodist  University 

Chas.  Zeleny 

University  of  Illinois 

Hans  Zinsser 

New  York  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons 


Introduction 

THE  MIND  OF  FRANCE 

THE  INTELLECTUAL  INSPIRATION 
OF  PARIS 


B.  F.,  Paris  g^ 


PARIS  —  Le  ■<  Penseuff  »  de  Rodin 


THE  THINKER 

(Rodin's  Statue  at  the  Entrance  to  the  Pantheon) 


The  Mind  of  France' 

In  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  France 
produced  a  large  number  of  great  masters  in  all  fields  of 
thought  —  in  literature,  science,  and  the  arts.  She  thus 
kept  abreast  of  all  intellectual  progress  in  Europe,  and 
often  led  the  way. 

These  great  men  were  usually  skilful  teachers  as  well 
as  creators  and  discoverers;  so  that  they  had  worthy 
disciples  —  groups  of  younger  scholars  who  spread  abroad 
the  masters'  ideas,  and  prolonged  their  influence  by  adding 
the  needed  interpretations  and  modifications.  In  many 
fields,  the  works  of  these  French  leaders  set  standards  not 
only  for  France,  but  for  the  world. 

Their  intellectual  work  possessed,  as  a  rule,  certain 
qualities  which  characterize  the  French  mind,  such  as 
broad  sympathy,  constructive  imagination,  and  a  ten- 
dency to  prefer  the  concrete  or  realistic  to  the  abstract, 
and  fact  to  speculation.  These  intellectual  characteristics 
of  the  French  have  proved  to  be  extraordinarily  perma- 
nent, abiding  generation  after  generation,  and  surviving 
immense  political  and  social  changes.  The  French  scholar 
is  apt  to  be  an  open-minded  man,  receptive  toward  new 
ideas,  and  an  ardent  lover  of  truth  fluent  and  progres- 
sive. The  French  scientists  have  rarely  been  extreme 
specialists,  narrow  in  their  interests  and  their  chosen 
objects.  They  have  recognized  that  no  science  can  be  pur- 
sued successfully  in  isolation;  its  affiliations  and  adjuncts 
must  also  be  studied.     They  have  not  been  subdued 

^[By  Charles  William  Eliot,  emeritus  President  of  Harvard 
University. — Ed.] 


2  INTRODUCTION 

by  the  elaborate  sorting  and  compiling  machinery  of 
modern  scholarship. 

The  French  people  under  all  their  forms  of  govern- 
ment —  monarchical,  imperial,  or  republican  —  have  al- 
ways shown  cordial  appreciation  of  intellectual  achieve- 
ments, and  particularly  of  scientific  investigation  in 
philology,  history,  physical  science,  biology,  sociology, 
and  law.  They  place  high  among  their  national  heroes 
their  great  scholars,  writers,  artists,  and  scientists.  This 
popular  appreciation  has  given  vitality  and  enduring 
national  influence  to  French  scholarship  in  a  great  va- 
riety of  fields. 

All  French  masters  in  science  and  literature  have  had 
the  advantage,  in  expounding  and  communicating  the 
fruits  of  their  labors,  of  expressing  themselves  in  the 
French  language,  wjiich  lends  itself  to  elegance  and 
clearness,  and  to  nice  discrimination  and  perfect  accuracy 
in  statement.  It  is  well-nigh  impossible  for  teacher  or 
expounder  to  be  clumsy,  obscure,  or  disorderly  in  the 
French  language.  Indeed,  many  of  the  most  profound 
French  philosophers  and  investigators  have  also  exhibited 
a  high  degree  of  literary  skill.  A  French  style  may  be 
exaggerated,  redundant,  or  diffuse,  but  it  never  fails  to 
be  clear.  The  French  language,  therefore,  has  been  of 
great  advantage  to  the  French  masters  of  thought,  and 
through  them  to  all  the  students  who  follow  them  — 
native  or  foreign. 

To  an  unexampled  degree  the  spirit  of  liberty  has 
animated  all  the  French  leaders  and  schools  of  thought 
for  two  centuries.  For  them  intellectual  inquiry  has  been 
free.  This  is  true  not  only  in  the  field  of  social  and  political 
ideas  and  the  philosophy  of  government,  but  also  in  the 
institutions  intended  to  promote  the  development  of 
science,  literature,  and  art.  The  French  Academies  of 
Science  and  Letters  all  illustrate  it,  and  so  do  the  noble 


INTRODUCTION  3 

professional  traditions  in  French  Courts  of  Justice  and 
the  French  Bar,  both  the  Courts  and  the  Bar  having  set 
high  examples  of  courage,  independence,  and  bold  insis- 
tence on  judicial  and  professional  privileges.  Science, 
letters,  and  art  in  France  have  always  shared,  and  often 
enkindled,  the  people's  love  of  freedom  and  their  pas- 
sionate advocacy  of  democracy. 

American  students,  thinking  to  take  advanced  studies 
in  Europe,  have  often  in  times  past  supposed  the  French 
to  be  an  inconstant,  pleasure-loving,  materialistic  people. 
They  have  now  learned  through  the  Great  War  that  the 
French  are  an  heroic  people,  constant  to  great  political 
and  social  ideals,  a  people  intelligent,  fervid,  dutiful,  and 
devoted  to  family,  home,  and  country.  They  have  also 
come  to  see  that  the  peculiar  national  spirit  of  France  is 
one  of  the  great  bulwarks  and  resources  of  civilization, 
which  ought  to  be  not  only  preserved,  but  reinforced. 

Cambridge,  4  May,  191 7. 


The  Intellectual 
Inspiration  of  Paris' 

That  delightful  American  humanist,  George  Ticknor, 
whose  Spanish  library  is  one  of  the  literary  treasures  of 
Boston,  has  given  us  in  his  Life  and  Letters  an  admirable 
picture  of  the  University  of  Gottingen  a  century  ago. 
The  University  of  Berlin  had  just  been  founded,  and  the 
characteristics  that  were  to  mark  this  essentially  modern 
German  city  were  as  yet  unknown.  Goethe  still  reigned 
at  Weimar,  and  the  academic  calm  of  the  university 
towns  was  a  fit  environment  for  the  study  and  investi- 
gation that  made  them  famous.  Still  wrapped  in  an 
atmosphere  of  classicism,  they  were  about  to  feel  the 
quickening  spirit  of  the  physical  sciences,  and  to  embark 
upon  that  rapid  advance  which  has  brought  wealth 
and  prosperity  to  modern  Germany.  Yet  Humboldt,  the 
cosmopolite,  who  epitomized  the  nascent  science  of  his 
native  land,  still  lingered  among  the  brilliant  leaders  of 
the  Paris  Academy,  although  yielding  at  length,  with  the 
deepest  reluctance,  to  the  royal  command  to  share  the 
king's  table  at  Potsdam. 

Ever  since  that  day  of  high  ideals,  when  Goethe  and 
Schiller  talked  in  the  quiet  gardens  of  Jena  or  crossed 
the  Alps  to  joint  the  literary  colony  of  Rome,  the  uni- 
versities of  Germany  have  drawn  to  their  hospitable 
halls   the   students   of   the   United    States.     To   these 

^[By  George  Ellery  Hale,  Foreign  Secretary  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Correspondent  of  the  Institute  of  France. — Ed.] 

5 


6  INTRODUCTION 

institutions  we  owe  much  of  the  regard  for  scholarship 
and  much  of  the  spirit  of  research  that  now  characterize 
our  own  universities.  Wolcott  Gibbs  at  Harvard,  in 
1863,  and  Oilman  at  Johns  Hopkins,  in  1876,  definitely 
fixed  in  our  advanced  courses  the  laboratory  methods 
they  had  learned  in  Germany.  Since  their  time,  in  a 
rapidly  widening  circle  of  universities,  research  leading 
to  the  doctor's  degree  has  become  universal,  greatly  to 
the  advantage  of  American  science.  No  faculty  member, 
if  perchance  half-hearted  in  his  desire  for  new  knowledge, 
can  afford  to  ignore  completely  the  growing  custom  of 
original  research.  To  be  most  successful  as  a  teacher 
he  must  be  counted  among  those  who  realize  that  in- 
spiration springs  from  advancing  knowledge  —  not  from 
the  sealed  books  of  the  Aristotelian,  whose  pedantic 
vision,  which  paralyzed  progress  in  the  past,  would  be 
no  less  deadly  at  the  present  day  if  the  spirit  of  research 
were  destroyed. 

The  influence  of  the  German  university  on  American 
education  has  thus  been  of  incalculable  value.  It  has 
taught  the  student  to  look  beyond  the  bachelor's  degree 
to  the  possibility  of  advancing  knowledge  by  his  own 
efforts,  and  to  realize  the  high  privilege  of  never-ceasing 
research.  It  has  also  taught  him  the  advantage  of  foreign 
travel  and  experience,  needed  so  imperiously  in  the  midst 
of  our  slowly  decreasing  insularity.  But,  in  working  so 
much  of  good,  it  has  almost  inevitably  involved  an  ele- 
ment of  harm,  by  centering  our  educational  ideals  too  ex- 
clusively in  a  single  country.  The  time  has  surely  come 
to  look  farther  afield.  And  in  widening  our  vision,  the 
great  debt  we  already  owe  to  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  is 
an  ample  assurance  of  the  rich  benefits  we  may  reason- 
ably hope  to  derive  from  the  other  schools  of  France. 

When  Ticknor  sailed  from  Boston  in  1815,  the  Paris 
Academy  of  Sciences  was  near  the  zenith  of  its  fame. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

Never  in  the  history  of  Europe  had  so  brilliant  a  company 
of  scientific  men  concentrated  in  one  spot  the  superb 
productions  of  their  genius.-*^  Alexander  von  Humboldt, 
contrasting  Paris  and  Berlin  at  a  later  period,  charac- 
terized the  latter  as  "an  intellectual  desert,  an  insig- 
nificant city  devoid  of  literary  culture."  Goethe,  too, 
longed  for  the  intellectual  joys  of  Paris.  Writing  to 
Eckermann  in  1827,  he  said: 

"Truth  to  say,  we  all  lead  a  miserably  isolated  existence. 
We  meet  with  but  little  sympathy  from  the  common  herd 
around  us,  and  our  men  of  genius  are  scattered  over  Germany. 
One  is  at  Vienna,  another  at  Berlin,  a  third  at  Konigsberg,  a 
fourth  at  Bonn  or  Diisseldorf  —  all  separated  by  some  hun- 
dreds of  miles,  so  that  personal  intercourse  and  a  viva  voce 
interchange  of  thought  is  a  matter  of  rare  occurrence.  I  am 
vividly  impressed  with  the  keen  enjoyment  this  would  yield 
when  I  am  in  the  company  of  men  like  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt, who  in  one  day  carry  me  farther  toward  all  I  am  seeking 
and  yearning  to  know  than  I  could  attain  during  years  of 
solitary  study. 

''Only  imagine,  however,  a  city  like  Paris,  where  the  clever- 
est heads  of  a  great  kingdom  are  grouped  together  in  one  spot, 
and  in  daily  intercourse  incite  and  stimulate  each  other  by 
mutual  emulation;  where  all  that  is  of  most  value  in  the  king- 
doms of  nature  and  art,  from  every  part  of  the  world,  is  daily 
open  to  inspection;  and  all  this  in  a  city  where  every  bridge 
and  square  is  associated  with  some  great  event  of  the  past, 
and  where  every  street-corner  has  a  page  of  history  to  unfold. 
And  withal  not  the  Paris  of  a  dull  and  stupid  age,  but  the 
Paris  of  the  nineteenth  century,  where  for  three  generations 
such  men  as  Moliere,  Voltaire,  and  Diderot  have  brought  into 
play  a  mass  of  intellectual  power  such  as  can  never  be  met 
with  a  second  time  on  any  single  spot  in  the  whole  world." 

It  would  be  easy  to  fill  this  book  with  distinguished 
eulogies  of  French  culture,   of  the   clearness  and  pre- 

^  See  the  present  writer's  "National  Academies  and  the  Progress  of 
Research,"  Science,  November  14,  1913. 


8  INTRODUCTION 

cision  of  French  thought  and  expression,  of  the  optimism 
and  charm  of  French  life, — quahties  that  still  remain 
the  dominant  characteristics  of  the  civilization  of  France. 

The  intellectual  growth  that  reached  its  finest  flower 
in  the  days  of  the  First  Empire  was  deeply  rooted  in  a 
scholarly  past.  Under  the  sheltering  walls  of  Notre 
Dame  a  colony  of  students  rose  into  view  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  soon  outgrew  the  confines  of  the  Island 
of  the  City.  Within  a  few  decades  the  University  of 
Paris  had  assumed  definite  form  in  its  present  locality, 
and  its  fame  drew  students  from  all  quarters  of  the 
civilized  world.  The  provinces  were  not  without  their 
schools  of  higher  education,  some  of  which  attained 
great  distinction.  But  the  concentration  that  has  both 
helped  and  hindered  France  focused  in  Paris  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  the  nation.  Favored  by  the  Court,  sharing 
the  prestige  which  made  and  maintains  the  French 
language  as  the  medium  of  diplomacy,  and  fostered  by 
the  world's  approval,  the  higher  spirit  of  France  grew 
apace.  Never  in  the  world's  history,  excepting  the  single 
case  of  Alexandria,  has  one  city  sheltered  so  much  of  a 
nation's  intellectual  greatness.  Woven  for  centuries  into 
the  fabric  of  the  national  life,  it  still  finds  expression  in  that 
high  civilization  which  is  so  universally  admired.  And  its 
appreciation  by  the  State,  generally  withheld  in  other 
lands,  is  visibly  demonstrated  to  every  visitor  to  Paris. 

If  you  would  feel  the  inspiration  of  a  great  nation's 
centuries  of  thought  and  brilliant  expression,  go  to  the 
Luxembourg  Gardens  on  a  bright  summer's  afternoon. 
From  this  center  you  may  set  out  to  observe,  as  in  no 
other  region  of  the  world,  the  widely  recorded  evidences 
of  intellectual  progress. 

We  are  in  the  midst  of  the  greatest  of  all  wars,  and 
the  roar  of  the  heavy  guns  at  Verdun  and  on  the  Somme 
is   almost   audible.     The   nation  has   been   stripped   of 


INTRODUCTION  9 

able-bodied  men  to  defend  its  frontier,  and  the  crowd 
that  still  returns  to  these  pleasant  gardens,  to  rest 
among  beds  of  flowers  and  pools  of  water,  is  made  sombre 
by  the  ever-present  marks  of  mourning.  Yet  the  chil- 
dren, who  must  carry  on  the  great  traditions  of  France 
after  the  war  has  ended,  mercifully  spared  the  depression 
which  their  elders  so  bravely  conceal,  sail  their  boats 
across  the  pond  as  in  happier  days.  A  string  orchestra, 
with  many  women  now  among  its  musicians,  draws  a 
group  about  it  beneath  the  trees.  In  spite  of  the  war 
the  old  life  of  Paris  still  goes  on. 

Encircling  the  pool,  and  stretching  away  on  all  sides, 
the  busts  and  statues  of  eminent  men  look  out  of  the 
past.  Even  the  light  reflected  from  the  windows  of  the 
palace  tells  of  great  discoveries.  For  on  a  winter's  day 
in  1808,  while  looking  at  one  of  these  windows  through 
a  piece  of  Iceland  spar,  Malus  detected  for  the  first  time 
that  remarkable  property  of  light  —  its  polarization  by 
reflection  —  which  aided  greatly  in  the  establishment  of 
the  wave  theory  by  Fresnel. 

To  our  left  rises  the  great  dome  of  the  Pantheon, 
inscribed  "Aux  grands  hommes  la  patrie  reconnaissante," 
enshrining  the  tombs  of  Hugo,  Lagrange,  and  Bougain- 
ville, and  testifying,  in  the  mural  decorations  of  Puvis 
de  Chavannes  and  in  Rodin's  "Le  Penseur,"  to  the 
perennial  flow  of  French  genius.  Here,  in  185 1,  Foucault 
suspended  from  the  lantern  of  the  dome  an  immense 
pendulum  which,  swinging  in  an  unchanging  plane  as 
the  floor  turned  beneath  it,  made  visible  the  rotation 
of  the  earth.  Close  at  hand  stands  the  Bibliotheque  de 
Sainte-Genevieve,  with  its  rich  collection  of  manuscripts 
and  early  printed  books;  flanked  by  the  Ecole  de  Droit, 
fronting  on  the  broad  Rue  Soufflot.  Book  shops  are 
everywhere,  devoted  to  law  or  to  medicine,  to  history, 
art  or  science,  to  theology  or  belles-lettres.    On  all  sides 


lo  INTRODUCTION 

the  achievements  of  French  civiHzation  are  honored  or 
offered  for  pubUc  service. 

Beyond  the  pond,  the  garden  extends  toward  the  south 
in  the  long  rectangle  of  the  Avenue  de  FObservatoire. 
Crossing  the  Rue  Auguste  Comte,  we  leave  the  children's 
area  behind,  and  watch  the  vista  down  the  long  rows  of 
clipped  horse-chestnuts.  In  May  they  are  superb  in 
their  white  wealth  of  blossoms,  and  now  in  early  Sep- 
tember, though  their  leaves  are  rusting,  the  effect  of 
skilful  massing  is  still  retained.  Beyond  the  Rue  Herschell 
and  the  Rue  Cassini  rises  the  great  stone  structure  of  the 
Observatory,  the  domes  at  its  two  extremities  coaxial 
with  the  alleys  of  trees.  Built  under  Louis  XIV  by 
Claude  Perrault,  physician  and  architect,  its  lofty 
fagade  speaks  eloquently  of  the  enlightened  appreciation 
of  pure  science  which  France  has  always  shown.  Here, 
during  its  early  years,  was  housed  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  Leclerc  has  recorded  for  us  in  one  of  his 
engravings  a  visit  of  Louis  XIV  to  the  members  assembled 
in  the  Observatory. 

Four  generations  of  the  house  of  Cassini  succeeded  to 
the  directorate  of  the  Observatory,  first  held  in  167 1  by 
Giovanni  Domenico  Cassini,  discoverer  of  the  four 
Saturnian  satellites  and  of  the  well-known  division  in 
Saturn's  ring.  Among  their  successors  were  Arago,  the 
brilliant  Perpetual  Secretary  of  the  Paris  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  Le  Verrier,  Senator  of  France,  whose  immor- 
tal researches  on  the  irregular  motions  of  Uranus  led 
in  1846  to  the  discovery  of  Neptune.  The  statue  of 
Le  Verrier  before  the  Observatory,  and  that  of  Arago  in 
the  Boulevard  Arago,  were  erected  by  national  sub- 
scription. 

The  same  fine  sense  of  fitness  which  has  given  the 
streets  about  the  Observatory  the  names  of  great  astron- 
omers is  repeatedly  illustrated  in  adjoining  regions  of 


INTRODUCTION  ii 

Paris.  The  broad  area  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  extend- 
ing to  the  Seine,  is  bounded  by  the  Rue  Cuvier,  the 
Rue  de  Buff  on  (named  for  the  first  director  of  the 
Garden),  and  the  Rue  Geoflroy  St.-Hilaire.  The  vast 
menagerie,  gardens,  and  exhibits,  including  the  herbaria 
of  Lamarck  and  Alexander  von  Humboldt  and  Cuvier's 
celebrated  collection  of  comparative  anatomy,  together 
with  the  statues  of  many  eminent  men  of  science, 
are  not  the  only  attractions  of  this  home  of  the  natu- 
ralist. Here  in  a  small  laboratory,  where  their  original 
instruments  may  still  be  seen,  four  generations  of  the 
family  of  Becquerel  have  carried  on  their  classic  inves- 
tigations. Most  significant  of  these  is  the  discovery 
by  Henri  Becquerel,  in  1896,  of  the  invisible  radia- 
tions of  uranium,  the  starting  point  of  research  in  radio- 
activity. 

Were  we  to  attempt  to  mention  here  even  a  tithe  of  the 
laboratories,  the  schools,  the  great  names,  or  the  funda- 
mental contributions  to  knowledge,  which  press  for 
recognition  in  all  points  of  the  Latin  Quarter,  these  intro- 
ductory pages  would  be  multiplied  beyond  the  reader's 
patience.  But  as  we  pass  from  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
through  the  Rue  de  Jussieu  or  the  Rue  Linne  toward 
the  core  of  France's  scholastic  heart,  our  gaze  is  often 
diverted.  Across  the  Place  Monge  rises  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique,  flanked  by  the  Rue  Descartes  and  the  Rue 
Laplace.  Farther  on  we  reach  the  College  de  France  and 
the  great  pile  of  the  Sorbonne.  The  statue  of  Claude 
Bernard  before  the  College  must  appeal  to  every  scholar; 
for  his  "Introduction  a  I'etude  de  la  medecine  experimen- 
tale,"  unfortunately  veiled  from  workers  in  other  fields 
by  its  medical  title,  is  one  of  the  classics  of  science. 
Here,  in  the  crystalline  clearness  of  perfect  French, 
devoid,  in  large  part,  of  professional  details,  the  general 
principles  of  scientific  research  are  superbly  presented. 


12  INTRODUCTION" 

No  investigator  unfamiliar  with  this  great  work  should 
leave  it  long  unread. 

If  we  elect  to  enter  the  Place  de  la  Sorbonne  through 
the  Rue  ChampoUion,  a  fascinating  chapter  in  the 
history  of  science  will  rise  before  us.  For  the  erudition 
of  Germany  in  the  field  of  Egyptology  all  goes  back  to 
the  achievements  of  ChampoUion,  first  to  decipher  the 
royal  cartouches  on  an  obelisk  and  to  read  the  trilingual 
inscription  of  the  Rosetta  Stone.  Napoleon  (who  in- 
variably signed  himself  while  in  Egypt  "Membre  de 
rinstitut,  General  en  Chef")  had  paved  the  way  for 
ChampoUion  by  taking  to  Cairo  a  brilliant  company  of 
men  of  science,  who  recorded  in  the  great  "Description 
de  I'Egypte"  the  inscriptions  of  the  Nile,  while  a  French 
officer  had  found  the  Stone  itself  at  the  Rosetta  mouth. 
Since  these  distinguished  beginnings,  the  stirring  tradi- 
tions of  French  archaeology  have  been  ably  maintained 
by  Mariette,  Maspero,  and  their  colleagues,  both  in 
Egypt  and  in  France, 

The  Church  of  the  Sorbonne  affords  a  fitting  entrance 
to  the  Sorbonne  itself.  The  marble  figure  of  Richelieu, 
beneath  his  cardinal's  hat  suspended  from  the  ceiling, 
marks  the  tomb  of  the  founder  of  the  Academic  Fran- 
gaise  and  the  builder  of  the  Sorbonne.  His  private 
library,  with  many  other  valuable  collections  of  early 
books  and  manuscripts,  is  still  preserved;  while  the 
stimulus  he  gave  to  letters  by  his  creation  of  the  French 
Academy  was  soon  emphasized  in  other  fields  by 
Colbert,  under  whom  the  Academie  des  Sciences,  the 
Academie  des  Beaux  Arts,  and  the  French  Academy  at 
Rome  were  established.  Colbert  even  conceived  the 
plan  of  the  Institute  of  France,  but  the  Institute  itself 
did  not  come  into  existence  until  after  the  Revolution. 

The  great  amphitheater  of  the  Sorbonne,  with  its 
superb  mural  paintings  and  its  statues  of  Robert  de 


INTRODUCTION  13 

Sorbon  (founder  of  the  original  hostel  for  poor  students), 
Richelieu,  Descartes,  Pascal,  Rollin,  and  Lavoisier,  is 
the  chief  place  for  university  functions.  These  six  figures 
epitomize  the  many-sided  achievements  of  French  intel- 
lectual progress.  Even  Pascal  alone  embodies  an  excep- 
tional range  of  activity;  we  find  him  again  represented  at 
the  base  of  the  Tour  St.  Jacques,  which  he  is  said  to 
have  ascended  to  repeat  his  experiments  proving  the 
decrease  in  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  with  increasing 
elevation.  Each  of  these  tempting  names,  which  might 
furnish  a  text  for  long  discourse,  must  be  passed  by  in 
favor  of  one  more  recent,  which  for  the  student  repre- 
sents most  truly  the  spirit  of  modern  France. 

Memories  of  Louis  Pasteur  are  best  recalled  in  the 
regions  associated  with  his  life  and  work.  The  broad 
Avenue  de  Breteuil,  coaxial  with  the  Hotel  des  In- 
valides,  extends  from  the  Tomb  of  Napoleon  to  the 
Boulevard  Pasteur.  At  the  center  of  the  Place  Breteuil 
stands  the  monument  erected  by  France  in  Pasteur's 
honor.  When  it  is  remembered  that  by  popular  vote 
Pasteur  was  declared  the  greatest  of  Frenchmen,  the 
national  significance  of  this  monument  will  be  appre- 
ciated. 

Pasteur's  later  work  was  done  in  the  Institut  Pasteur, 
which  stands  in  the  Rue  Dutot,  not  far  from  the  Boule- 
vard Pasteur.  Here  also  is  his  tomb.  But  the  reader  of 
his  biography  by  Vallery-Radot  —  a  book  to  which 
every  young  investigator,  in  whatever  field  of  science, 
should  go  for  inspiration  and  guidance  —  will  remember 
with  keenest  pleasure  those  simple  beginnings  when 
Pasteur,  an  obscure  student  from  the  little  village  of 
Dole,  embarked  upon  his  career  of  discovery.  He 
was  studying  the  crystals  of  racemic  acid,  intent  only 
on  the  advancement  of  knowledge,  and  with  no  thought 
of  practical  ends,  when  he  noticed  a  curious  dissymmetry, 


14  INTRODUCTION 

which  had  escaped  even  such  skilled  investigators  as 
Mitscherlich  and  La  Provostaye.  Two  crystals  of  pre- 
cisely the  same  chemical  composition  were  seen  to  be 
identical  also  in  form,  except  in  one  respect:  although 
the  interfacial  angles  were  the  same,  the  two  could  not 
be  superposed  —  the  small  facets  were  inclined  in  some 
cases  to  the  right,  and  in  others  to  the  left.  Carefully 
separated  into  two  heaps  and  then  dissolved,  the  two 
types  of  crystals  in  solution,  though  chemically  iden- 
tical, produced  opposite  effects  on  a  beam  of  polarized 
light — one  rotating  it  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left. 
Mixed  in  equal  parts,  they  caused  no  rotation. 

This  discovery,  to  the  lay  mind  so  valueless,  excited 
Pasteur  beyond  measure.  He  rushed  from  the  laboratory, 
and  in  the  long  alleys  of  the  Luxembourg  Gardens 
unfolded  his  vision  of  its  consequences  to  his  friend 
Chappuis.  The  constitution  of  racemic  acid,  formerly 
so  mysterious,  had  been  found;  a  new  class  of  isomeric 
substances  had  been  discovered;  the  phenomenon  of 
rotatory  polarization  and  the  properties  of  crystals  had 
been  illuminated:  in  short,  a  new  and  unforeseen  route 
had  been  opened  in  science.  Biot,  when  Pasteur  repeated 
the  experiment  for  him,  exclaimed:  "Mon  cher  enfant, 
j'ai  tant  aime  les  sciences  dans  ma  vie  que  cela  me  fait 
battre  le  coeur!" 

Beautiful  as  this  discovery  appeared  to  the  veteran 
Biot,  it  was  still  more  marvelous  in  its  possibiUties  to 
Pasteur  himself.  For  his  powerful  imagination  carried 
him  far  beyond  its  immediate  applications  in  chemistry 
and  physics  toward  the  still  greater  consequences  that 
he  already  half  divined.  Eager  to  pursue  the  new  path, 
he  followed  up  his  work.  How  is  racemic  acid  produced? 
With  the  aid  of  MitscherHch,  Pasteur  set  out  in  hot 
haste  for  the  chemical  factories  of  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Bohemia.      Everywhere   he   found    traces   of   the   acid 


INTRODUCTION  15 

in  tartrates.  Returning  to  Paris,  he  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing racemic  acid  experimentally,  and  incidentally 
won  the  Chevalier's  ribbon  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Twenty  years  later,  as  a  direct  consequence  of  these 
experiments  on  crystalline  dissymmetry,  arose  the  new 
science  of  stereochemistry,  which  tells  us  of  the  arrange- 
ment in  space  of  the  atoms  constituting  a  molecule. 
But  far  more  important,  Pasteur's  studies  of  racemic 
acid  showed  him  that  while  one  class  of  crystals  would 
ferment,  the  others  remained  inert  in  the  liquid.  Why 
should  this  be?  Because,  he  replied,  "Les  ferments  de 
cette  fermentation  se  nourrissent  plus  facilement  des 
molecules  droites  que  des  molecules  gauches."  But 
what,  then,  is  fermentation,  that  strange  process  regarded 
by  Liebig  and  others  as  a  purely  chemical  phenomenon? 
The  answer  was  immediately  given  by  Pasteur,  who 
showed  it  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  hosts  of  bacteria, 
which  eagerly  devoured  one  class  of  crystals  and  ignored 
the  others. 

Here  was  the  beginning  of  that  great  study  of  putre- 
factive changes,  and  of  the  part  played  by  bacteria  in 
disease,  which  made  the  world  Pasteur's  debtor. 
Modern  surgery,  the  cure  of  rabies,  the  germ  theory  of 
infection, —  all  go  back  to  those  simple  experiments 
in  pure  science  that  laid  the  foundation  of  his  career. 
What  a  privilege  for  the  student  to  foUow  in  his  foot- 
steps, to  feel  the  stimulus  of  his  example,  to  realize  in 
some  measure  that  high  sense  of  devotion  to  truth, 
of  obligation  to  humanity,  best  typified  in  Louis  Pasteur ! 

But  the  fascination  of  Pasteur  has  tempted  us  far 
afield.  Here  in  the  Luxembourg  Gardens,  to  which 
his  talks  with  Chappuis  have  brought  us  back,  we  may 
well  pause  to  reflect  on  the  demands  that  the  American 
student  may  fairly  make  on  the  country  he  elects  for 


i6  INTRODUCTION 

university  work.  Paris,  as  Goethe  and  Humboldt 
declared,  and  as  those  who  are  acquainted  with  French 
scholars  today  will  heartily  reiterate,  is  full  of  intel- 
lectual opportunity  and  charm.  The  admirable  courses 
of  instruction  offered  in  every  department  of  knowledge 
are  fully  set  forth  in  the  present  volume.  If  in 
some  fields  there  is  room  for  improvement  of  the  facili- 
ties now  available  for  research,  we  have  the  strongest 
assurances  that  these  will  be  rapidly  augmented.  Thus, 
from  the  intellectual  standpoint,  the  scholastic  attrac- 
tions of  Paris  should  cleave  nothing  to  be  desired. 

But  may  not  the  student  ask  for  more?  May  he  not 
hope  to  find,  in  the  country  he  visits  for  graduate  study, 
the  inspiring  qualities  of  an  advanced  civilization,  the 
high  ideals  of  a  nation  devoted  to  progress  in  the  finest 
sense?    Let  us  test  France  from  this  viewpoint. 

Glance  at  the  past,  and  realize  how  deep-rooted  is 
her  culture.  The  courtliness  and  taste  of  the  old 
regime,  its  refinements  in  art,  the  elegance  of  its  litera- 
ture, the  lasting  contributions  to  civilization  made  by 
its  greater  statesmen,  still  find  expression  in  the  hfe 
and  institutions  of  Paris.  And  this  rich  heritage  stands 
free  from  the  defects  of  an  earher  social  structure  and  the 
aggressive  ambitions  of  imperial  days.  France,  fortu- 
nate among  nations,  has  conserved  the  good  and  rejected 
the  evil  experienced  in  her  national  progress.  The 
dark  passions  of  the  Revolution  have  utterly  disappeared, 
giving  place  to  the  spirit  of  liberty,  equahty,  fraternity, 
truly  expressed  in  the  national  life,  and  uniting  France 
and  the  United  States  by  unbreakable  bonds. 

But  the  present,  not  the  past,  must  determine  the 
student's  choice.  Here  he  will  not  hesitate,  for  France 
stands,  as  all  the  world  knows,  at  the  highest  level  of 
her  moral  attainment.  The  baseless  charge  of  deca- 
dence, the  ignorant  depreciation  based  on  an  imperfect 


INTRODUCTION  17 

knowledge  of  the  French  people  and  an  inabihty  to  per- 
ceive their  deeper  qualities — all  this,  occasionally  heard 
in  the  past,  has  been  forever  silenced  by  the  War,  re- 
veahng  a  devotion  to  the  State,  a  quiet  but  unyielding 
persistence  in  the  defense  of  national  ideals,  which  no 
opponent  can  overcome.  The  inspiring  vision  of  war- 
swept  France,  indomitable  in  the  face  of  sudden  invasion, 
will  draw  to  her  universities  in  the  coming  days  of  peace 
many  a  student  who  would  taste  for  himself  the  quali- 
ties he  has  admired  and  envied  from  the  comfortable 
security  of  the  United  States. 
Paris,  September,  1916. 


Anthropology 


Anthropology' 

The  history  of  Anthropology,  with  its  four  subdivi- 
sions of  Physical  Anthropology,  Prehistoric  Archaeology, 
Ethnology,  and  Ethnography,  can  be  traced  in  France 
perhaps  better  than  in  any  other  country  of  the  world. 

Physical  Anthropology.  This  statement  is  especially 
true  of  Physical  Anthropology.  It  was  a  French  traveller, 
Bernier  (162 5-1 688)  who  first  attempted  to  distinguish 
the  races  of  mankind;  this  preceded  the  classification  of 
Linnaeus  by  over  fifty  years.  BurroN  (i  707-1 788) 
was  one  of  the  first  to  insist  that  man  was  a  single  species. 
The  "  Transformism "  of  Lamarck  (1744-1829)  was  the 
first  coherent  theory  of  evolution.  This  hypothesis 
was  supported  by  Saint-Hilaire  (i  772-1844),  and 
attacked  by  Cuvier  (176 9- 183 2),  who  put  forward 
"the  catastrophic  theory"  as  his  solution  of  the  ques- 
tion of  the  history  of  the  animal  world.  Hair  as  the 
most  perfect  of  the  criteria  of  race  was  recognized  as 
early  as  1827  by  Saint- Vincent  and  in  1858  by  Saint- 
Hilaire.  But  it  was  not  until  1863,  when  Pruner 
Bey  read  his  classic  memoir  before  the  Societe  d'Anthro- 
pologie,  that  the  importance  of  this  criterion  for  a  classi- 
fication of  the  races  of  man  was  fully  realized. 

Alfred  Haddon  ^  has  called  Broca,  Topinard,  and 
DE  QuATREFAGES  the  "  Systematisers "  of  Anthropol- 
ogy.   Broca   (1824-1880),  the  greatest  of  all  physical 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  C.  H.  Hawes,  Dartmouth  College;  A.  M. 
TozzER,  Harvard  University. —  Ed.] 

2  A  History  of  Anthropology,"  N.  Y,,  igio. 


21 


22  ANTHROPOLOGY 

anthropologists,  was  the  prime  mover  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Societe  d' Anthropologic  de  Paris  in  1859 
and  of  the  Ecole  d'Anthropologie  in  1876.  His  pioneer 
work  on  craniology  led  to  his  invention  of  numerous  im- 
portant instruments  for  this  study.  His  work  on  the 
hybridization  of  the  human  species  was  the  first  study 
to  be  made  of  race-mixture.  Topinard  made  valuable 
investigations  on  the  living  population  of  France,  and 
his  work  "L' Anthropologic"  (1876)  has  remained  the 
standard  text-book  almost  up  to  the  present  time.  The 
third  of  the  "  Systematisers "  was  de  Quatrefages 
(1810-1892),  professor  of  Anthropology  in  the  Museum 
d'Histoire  Naturelle  of  Paris.  He  was  an  early  champion 
of  the  much  derided  claim  of  man's  great  antiquity 
upon  this  earth.  His  book  "L'Espece  humaine"  (1877) 
was  one  of  the  first  to  take  into  account  the  importance 
of  fossil  forms  of  man. 

A  list  of  other  French  physical  anthropologists  and  their 
interests  should  include  Deniker  and  his  "Races  et 
peuples  de  la  terre"  (1900);  Hamy;  Collignon,  in  pig- 
mentation and  anthropometrical  surveys;  Quetelet,  a 
pioneer  of  the  biometric  method;  Verneau  and  his  work 
on  the  Grimaldi  and  Cro-Magnon  "races";  Boule  on 
the  bones  from  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints;  and  Manouvrier. 
Mention  should  be  made  here  of  the  work  of  Bertillon 
on  the  identification  of  criminals. 

Prehistoric  Archaeology.  In  the  field  of  prehistoric 
archaeology,  France  has  played  the  leading  part.  This 
is  due  to  some  extent  to  the  rich  field  for  archaeology 
to  be  found  in  France.  It  is  significant  that  the  current 
modern  name  of  each  of  the  periods  of  the  palaeolithic 
culture  in  Europe  is  a  French  name  associated  with  a 
site  where  typical  forms  of  stone  implements  were  found. 
The  name  of  Boucher  de  Perthes  stands  out  in  this 


PAUL  BROCA  (1824-1J 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


ANTHROPOLOGY  23 

field  of  prehistoric  archaeology.  His  discoveries  at 
Abbeville,  in  1825,  of  the  bones  of  extinct  animals  asso- 
ciated with  flint  implements  led  him  to  champion  the 
cause  of  early  man  in  France.  It  was  not  until  1859 
that  these  finds  were  completely  substantiated  by  the 
investigations  of  the  English  archaeologists,  Prestwich, 
Lyell,  and  Sir  John  Evans.  The  importance  of  this 
validation  cannot  be  over-estimated  in  the  history  of 
prehistoric  archaeology.  Courmant  (v/ho  may  be  called 
the  successor  of  Boucher  de  Perthes)  and  d'Acy  have 
worked  in  the  river-drift  deposits. 

We  come  next  to  the  great  period  of  cave  man  in  the 
famous  Dordogne  district.  Beginning  with  the  classical 
discoveries  at  Les  Eyzies  by  Lartet  and  his  English 
companion,  Christy,  we  have  a  long  series  of  names, 
including  the  father  of  prehistoric  archaeology,  Gabriel 
DE  Mortillet,  and  his  son,  Adrian  de  Mortillet, 
Massenat,  Girod,  and  later  the  investigations,  largely 
undertaken  in  concert,  by  I'Abbe  Breuil,  Capitan, 
BouLE,  Verneau,  and  Peyrony.  The  Menton  caves 
have  been  described  by  Abbo,  Riviere,  and  Cartailhac. 
Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  work  of  Arcelin 
at  Solutre,  Martin  at  La  Quina,  and  Chauvet  near 
Angouleme.  Piette  stands  out  alone  for  his  researches 
in  the  Pyrenees  on  the  "painted  pebbles"  and  the  sculp- 
tures, and  for  his  establishment  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  palaeolithic  cave  paintings  and  etchings.  The  sub- 
ventions of  the  Prince  of  Monaco  made  possible  extensive 
recent  excavations,  the  results  of  which  are  under  the 
care  of  I'Abbe  Laville  in  the  Musee  Oceanographique 
at  Monaco. 

As  Boucher  de  Perthes  was  the  vindicator  of  Quater- 
nary man  in  France,  I'Abbe  Bourgeois  stands  as  the 
champion  of  Tertiary  man.  The  battle  over  the  Eolithic 
question  has  been  a  warm  one,  and  its  center  has  been 


24  ANTHROPOLOGY 

in  France.  Desnoyers  in  1863  at  Saint-Prest,  I'Abbe 
Bourgeois  in  1867  at  Thenay,  and  Rames  in  1877  at 
Puy-Courny,  are  some  of  the  protagonists.  In  spite 
of  the  efforts  of  the  Belgian,  Rutot,  to  assume  the  onus 
of  an  affirmative  solution,  French  scholars,  led  by  Boule, 
have,  as  a  whole,  refused  to  accept  this  answer. 

The  investigations  in  Neolithic  France  have  been 
made  by  Chatellier  in  Brittany  (1807)  with  his 
museum  at  Kernuz;  Bonstetten,  Cusset,  Baye,  I'Abbe 
Hermet,  in  the  dolmens,  and  Bertrand  at  Carnac. 
GuEBHARD,  Vire,  Baudouin,  and  Jacquot,  are  a  few 
of  the  others  interested  in  the  prehistoric  monuments 
of  France. 

The  Age  of  Bronze  was  first  investigated  in  France 
by  Chantre  (1876)  in  the  Rhone  Basin.  Coutil  is 
another  name  to  note  in  this  horizon.  Dechelette, 
Bertrand,  Corot,  and  Piroutet,  are  the  names  of 
some  of  those  associated  with  investigations  in  the 
Iron  Age. 

It  is  impossible  to  speak  of  the  large  mass  of  literature 
on  prehistoric  France.  Special  mention  should,  however, 
be  made  of  G.  de  Mortillet's  "Le  Prehistorique " 
(1883),  Edmond's  "Musee  Osteologique "  (1907),  S. 
Reinach's  "Repertoire  de  I'Art  Quaternaire"  (19 13), 
and  Dechelette 's  monumental  work  "Manuel  d'Arche- 
ologie  prehistorique"  (3  vols.   1 898-191 2). 

American  Archaeology.  It  is  perhaps  significant  of 
the  wide  interest  taken  in  the  subject  of  prehistoric 
archaeology  by  France  to  note  that  American  archaeology 
has  by  no  means  been  neglected.  The  only  complete 
treatise  on  American  archaeology  is  that  of  the  late 
M.  Beuchat,  "Manuel  d'Archeologie  americaine" 
(191 2).  Nadaillac  has  also  written  two  books  dealing 
with    America.      Middle    American    archaeology,    and 


ANTHROPOLOGY  25 

especially  the  hieroglyphic  writing,  have  been  investi- 
gated by  many  French  scientists.  Among  these  are 
Brasseur  de  Boiirbourg,  Charency,  Hamy,  de  Rosny, 
PiNART,  and  Lejeal.  Several  French  explorers  have 
made  extensive  investigations  in  Central  America. 
Waldeck,  Charnay,  and  the  Comte  de  Perigny  are 
among  this  number.  The  most  famous  of  all  American- 
ists is  the  Due  de  Loubat,  who  has  established  professor- 
ships in  Mexican  Archaeology  at  the  College  de  France, 
at  the  University  of  BerHn,  and  at  Columbia  University. 
His  masterly  reproductions  of  many  of  the  pre-Colum- 
bian and  post- Columbian  manuscripts  have  made  these 
valuable  documents  available  to  students. 

Ethnology  and  Ethnography.  The  investigations  in 
these  subjects  started  with  the  noble  work  of  the 
Jesuit  missionaries  in  Canada,  South  America,  and  Asia. 
Among  other  investigators  in  this  side  of  anthropology 
are  Buefon;  de  Quatrefages  on  the  Pygmies;  Bou- 
gainville and  D 'Entrecasteaux  in  the  Pacific;  de 
Brazza,  who  opened  up  the  French  Congo;  Duvegrier 
and  ScHiRMER,  in  the  Central  Sahara;  Sogonzac,  in 
Morocco;  Tilho,  at  Lake  Chad;  and  d'Orbiny,  in 
South  America. 

Sociology.  CoMTE  (i 798-1857)  was  the  founder  of 
the  modern  science  of  Sociology.  There  is  an  illustrious 
list  of  French  scholars  interested  in  problems  of  Social 
Anthropology:  Giraltd-Teulon;  Letourneau  on 
primitive  marriage;  Durkheim,  Hubert,  and  Mauss, 
who  have  made  "L'Annee  sociologique "  famous;  and 
Tarde. 

Linguistics.  All  students  of  primitive  languages  are 
under  obligations  to  Rousselot  for  the  invention  of 
the  Kymograph  for  recording  sounds  graphically.  It 
is  possible  to  speak  of  a  few  only  of  the  French  students 


26  ANTHROPOLOGY 

of  primitive  languages;  Ren6  Basset,  for  his  work  on 
Hametic  languages,  and  Faidherbe,  Masqueray,  and 
MoTYLYNSKY  on  Berber,   should  be  mentioned. 

Instruction.  Anthropological  instruction  is  offered  at 
the  College  de  France  under  Capitan,  who  gives  courses 
on  Mexican  archaeology;  at  the  Museum  d'Histoire 
Naturelle,  under  Verneau,  on  the  prehistoric  races  of 
Europe;  at  the  Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes  a  la 
Sorbonne,  under  Manouvrier,  on  physical  anthropology, 
and  under  Raynaud,  on  the  religions  of  pre-Columbian 
America;  and  at  the  Ecole  d '  Anthropologie,  under  A.  de 
Mortillet  on  ethnography,  Mahoudeau  on  zoological 
anthropology,  Papillault  on  sociology,  Vinson  on  linguis- 
tics, Herve  on  ethnology,  Capitan,  and  Manouvreer. 

Mention  should  be  made  also  of  the  Oriental  schools 
at  Cairo,  in  Egypt;  at  Saigon,  in  Cochin  China,  and  in 
Cambodia. 

Field  work  in  prehistoric  archaeology  is  available,  as 
in  no  other  place  in  the  world,  in  the  river-drift  and  cave 
deposits  of  France.  French  investigators  in  this  field 
have  always  shown  a  cordiality  and  welcome  to  foreign 
investigators.  In  taking  into  account  the  opportunities 
for  work  in  prehistoric  archaeology,  it  should  be  noted 
that,  whereas  formal  instruction  is  seldom  offered  any- 
where except  in  Paris,  the  extensive  work  of  the  scientific 
societies,  which  will  be  discussed  later,  is  available  to 
all  properly  accredited  students. 

Museums.  France  has  more  archaeological  and  an- 
thropological museums  than  any  other  country  in  the 
world.  In  addition  to  the  famous  Musee  des  Antiquites 
Nationales,  at  Saint-Germain,  there  is  the  Musee 
d'Ethnographie,  at  the  Palais  du  Trocadero;  the  Museum 
d'Histoire  Naturelle;  the  department  of  Archeologie 
Celtique  et  Gauloise,  at  the  Louvre;  and  the  Musee  de 


ANTHROPOLOGY  27 

I'lScole  d'Anthropologie.  There  are  no  less  than  ninety 
archaeological  museums  in  France,  not  to  mention  those 
in  the  French  possessions. 

Scientific  Societies.  France  has  the  honor  of  having 
the  oldest  anthropological  society,  the  Societe  des 
Observateurs  de  I'Homme,  estabhshed  in  Paris  in  1800. 
This  was  succeeded  by  the  Societe  ethnologique  de 
Paris  in  1839.  There  followed  the  Societe  d'Anthropo- 
logie in  1859,  the  Societe  d'Ethnographie  in  the  same  year, 
the  Societe  americaine  de  France,  the  Societe  prehis- 
torique,  the  Congres  prehistorique  de  France,  and  the 
Commission  d'Etude  des  enceintes  prehistoriques  et  forti- 
fications antehistoriques,  and  the  Institut  international 
d'Ethnographie  et  de  Sociologie.  All  these  societies 
have  valuable  series  of  publications. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  inauguration  at 
Nancy  in  1875  of  the  Congres  international  des  Ameri- 
canistes,  which  has  had  a  long  and  prosperous  history. 
There  should  also  be  noted  the  anthropological  societies 
of  Lyon  and  Bordeaux,  together  with  no  less  than  forty 
associations  for  anthropological  or  archaeological  research 
scattered  through  France. 

Scientific  Publications.  In  addition  to  the  publication 
of  Bulletins  and  Memoirs  by  many  of  the  preceding 
societies,  there  are  a  large  number  of  scientific  publications 
devoted  to  anthropology.  Among  these  are  the  "Revue 
anthropologique,"  a  continuation  of  the  "Revue  d'Ecole 
d'Anthropologie";  "1 'Anthropologic,"  one  of  the  fore- 
most anthropological  publications  in  the  world; 
"L 'Homme";  "Materiaux  pour  I'Histoire  primitive  et 
naturelle  de  I'homme";  "Revue  d'Ethnographie"; 
"L'Ethnographie";  "L 'Homme  prehistorique";  "Revue 
des  Etudes  prehistoriques" ;  "Prehistorique  de  France"; 
and  "Bulletin  de  la  Commission  archeologique  de 
rindochine." 


28  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Libraries,  The  libraries  of  the  various  institutions 
mentioned  have  large  collections  of  anthropological 
material.  The  Bibliotheque  de  la  Societe  des  Antiquaires 
de  France,  at  the  Louvre,  specializes  in  archaeology; 
and  the  Bibhotheque  Nationale  has  probably  the  largest 
collection  of  original  Mexican  manuscripts  of  any  in- 
stitution in  the  world. 


Archaeology 


AND 


HISTORY  OF  ART 


Archaeology 

AND 

HISTORY  OF  ART^ 

In  the  development  of  Archaeology  from  a  "handmaid 
of  Philology"  into  a  definite  science,  with  its  own  tradi- 
tions and  methods  of  procedure  (which  is  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  achievements  of  the  nineteenth  century), 
French  scholars  have  played  an  important  part. 

Champollion's  discovery  of  the  key  to  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphic  writing  ranks  first,  perhaps,  in  the  record 
of  their  achievements;  but  his  is  only  one  among  many 
prominent  names.  In  the  same  field  of  Egyptology, 
Mariette  will  always  be  remembered  as  the  discoverer 
of  the  tombs  of  the  Apis  bulls  and  of  many  other  monu- 
ments, and  as  the  organizer  of  the  great  museum  in 
Cairo.  And  the  rapid  advance  in  knowledge  of  ancient 
Egypt  in  recent  years  is  very  largely  due  to  Maspero, 
the  learned  and  broad-minded  Director  General  of  the 
Department  of  Antiquities  under  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment for  many  years  before  his  death  in  June,  1916.  The 
exploration  of  the  Syrian  region  and  the  study  of  Semitic 
epigraphy  and  archaeology  owe  much  to  Renan,  though 
his  great  fame  rests  on  his  "Life  of  Jesus"  and  other 
works  not  strictly  archaeological  in  character.  In  the  fasci- 
nating story  of  research  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  the  work 
of  BoTTA  and  Place  in  exploring  the  palace  of  Sargon  at 
KJiorsabad  (the  first  of  the  great  palaces  of  this  region  to 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  George  H.  Chase,  Harvard  University; 
Harold  N.  Fowler,  Western  Reserve  University;  A.  L.  Frothingham, 
Princeton  University;  J.  R.  Wheeler,  Columbia  University. — Ed.] 

31 


32  ARCHAEOLOGY 

be  excavated),  and  that  of  Dieulatoy  and  Sarzec  in 
the  mound  of  Tello,  occupy  a  prominent  place;  and  the 
recent  excavations  of  Morgan  at  Susa  and  PersepoKs 
have  brought  to  light  a  mass  of  important  material  for 
the  early  history  of  the  Orient.  Oppert,  Heuzey,  and 
Menant  have  led  in  elucidating  this  new  material. 

In  the  development  of  classical  archaeology,  also, 
the  part  played  by  French  scholars  is  noteworthy,  espe- 
cially in  the  exploration  of  Greek  lands.  Even  before 
the  estabHshment  of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece, 
the  Expedition  scientifique  de  Moree  in  1829  and  1830, 
under  the  leadership  of  Blouet,  collected  materials  for 
an  elaborate  publication  devoted  to  the  ancient  ruins  in 
the  Peloponnesus,  then  very  imperfectly  known;  and  the 
explorations  of  Texier  in  Asia  Minor  in  1833-37  Per- 
formed a  similar  service  for  the  monuments  of  that  region 
and  supplemented  the  earlier  work  of  English  travelers. 

New  stimulus  to  such  researches  was  given  by  the 
establishment,  in  1847,  of  the  Ecole  frangaise  d'Athenes, 
the  first  of  the  "foreign"  schools  in  Athens,  which 
served  as  a  model  for  those  established  later  by  other 
nations  in  the  capital  of  Greece.  With  this  school 
most  of  the  French  classical  archaeologists  of  the  last 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  at  some  time  been 
associated.  Members  of  the  School  have  conducted 
many  excavations  in  Greek  lands,  the  most  notable 
of  wliich  are  those  at  Myrina  (1880-82),  at  Delos  (begun 
in  1873,  ^-nd  still  in  progress),  and  at  Delphi  (1892-97, 
with  supplementary  work  in  more  recent  years).  Among 
the  famous  members  of  the  School  who  are  no  longer 
living,  mention  may  be  made  of  Albert  Dumont,  Director 
in  1875-78,  a  prolific  writer  on  many  aspects  of  ancient 
art,  who  in  1873-75  established  the  important  French 
School  of  Archaeology  in  Rome;  Olivier  Rayet,  explorer 
of  the  great  temple  of  Apollo  at  Didyma  in  1873  and 


ARCHAEOLOGY  33 

founder  of  the  "Monuments  de  FArt  antique"  (2  vols., 
1881-83);  and  Georges  Perrot,  a  critic  of  unusual 
acumen,  joint  author  (with  the  architect  Chipiez)  of  the 
comprehensive  "Histoire  de  I'Art,"  the  tenth  volume  of 
which  was  pubHshed  just  before  his  recent  death.  Other 
notable  scholars  in  this  field  were  Frangois  Lenormant, 
founder  of  the  "Gazette  Archeologique"  (1875-89),  a 
voluminous  writer  in  many  fields,  who  was  famous  no 
less  as  an  orientalist  than  as  a  classical  archaeologist,  and 
Henri  Cohen,  whose  great  "Description  historique  des 
monnaies  f rappees  sous  I'Empire  romain"  (2d  ed., 
8  vols.,  1880-92)  is  an  indispensable  book  to  all  workers 
in  Roman  numismatics. 

The  establishment  of  French  rule  in  Algeria  (1830)  and 
in  Tunis  (1881)  threw  open  to  French  archaeologists  two 
most  interesting  districts,  which  they  have  explored  with 
great  success.  A  new  Pompeii  has  been  laid  bare  at 
Timgad.  Many  of  the  important  Roman  sites  have 
been  cleared  of  debris,  museums  have  been  established, 
and  knowledge  of  Roman  Africa  has  been  greatly  in- 
creased, under  the  leadership  of  Gsell,  Toutain, 
Gauckler,  Saladin,  and  Cagnat. 

Meanwhile  the  investigation  of  the  monuments  of 
France  itself  has  been  eagerly  pursued.  Local  antiquarian 
societies  have  conducted  excavations  in  many  places 
and  built  up  local  museums,  devoted  at  first  to  Gallic 
and  Gallo-Roman  antiquities,  but  later,  with  the  growth 
of  interest  in  prehistoric  monuments,  to  relics  of  earlier 
times  as  well.  In  the  development  of  the  science  of 
"prehistory,"  a  leading  place  belongs  to  Gabriel  de 
MoRTiLLET,  whose  weU-known  "Prehistorique"  (first 
published  in  1883;  3d  ed.,  1900)  was  one  of  the  first 
attempts  at  a  comprehensive  treatment  of  the  ages  of 
stone,  bronze,  and  iron.  The  French  government  set  a 
brilliant  example  to  all  nations  in  organizing  an  official 


34  ARCHAEOLOGY 

census  of  all  French  monuments  more  systematic  and 
complete  than  any  attempted  elsewhere.  The  Com- 
mission des  Monuments  Historiques  has  largely  directed 
it,  as  well  as  the  restorations,  and  has  issued  volumes  of 
folio  plates  since  1855.  The  Roman  period  in  Algeria  and 
Tunisia  has  been  illustrated  by  splendid  publications,  of 
which  the  monograph  on  Timgad  is  the  most  spectacular. 
In  France  itself  Esperandieu  has  given  a  corpus  of  all 
the  Roman  sculptures,  and  Blanchet  had  described 
the  Gallo-Roman  cities.  Le  Blant  has  collected  all  the 
early  Christian  sarcophagi,  second  in  importance  only  to 
those  of  Italy.  To  Verneilh  is  due  the  first  collective 
study  of  Byzantine  architecture.  For  the  Romanesque 
period,  just  preceding  the  Gothic,  the  field  was  covered 
in  the  South  by  Revoil  and  in  the  North  by  Ruprich- 
RoBERT.  The  scientific  basis  for  the  understanding  of 
Gothic  art,  not  only  in  France,  where  it  originated,  but 
everywhere,  was  laid  by  Quicherat,  and  expanded  by 
his  brilliant  successors,  De  Lasteyrie  ("Origines  de 
r Architecture  gothique"  and  many  other  works),  and 
Enlart,  whose  comprehensive  "Manuel  d'Archeologie 
frangaise"  (1902-16),  a  full  history  of  French  art,  is  the 
authoritative  statement  of  the  modern  school. 

Almost  contemporary  with  Quicherat,  and  far  more 
popular,  was  Viollet-le-Duc,  whose  studies  in  the 
mediaeval  architecture  and  art  of  France  were  published 
in  a  great  series  of  beautifully  written  volumes,  and  who 
had  charge  of  the  restoration  of  many  of  the  greatest 
national  monuments;  the  most  familiar  of  his  books  is 
his  ''Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  I'Architecture  frangaise  du 
xi^  au  xvi"  siecle"  (10  vols.,  1867-73).  Another  orig- 
inal teacher  was  Courajod,  whose  courses  at  the  £cole 
du  Louvre  were  revolutionary.  The  most  brilliant 
illustrator  of  the  art  of  the  Renaissance  in  France  has 
been  Palustre. 


EUGENE     EMMANUEL     VIOLLET-le-DUC  (1814-1879) 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


ARCHAEOLOGY  35 

In  the  general  post-classic  field,  several  French  scholars 
have  done  invaluable  work.  De  Vogue  revealed  a  new 
branch  of  early  Christian  architecture  in  the  ruined 
cities  of  Syria  ("La  Syrie  centrale");  in  Byzantine  art 
may  be  noted  the  work  of  Schlumberger  (with  his 
triology  of  "Nicephore  Phocas,"  "L'Epopee  byzantine," 
"Basile  II,"  his  numismatic  and  other  studies)  and  of 
DiEHL  ("L'Art  byzantin  dans  I'ltalie  meridionale," 
"Justinien,"  "Ravenne,"  etc.).  Dartein  was  the  first 
to  make  known  the  architecture  of  Lombardy,  and 
Berteaux  has  done  much  for  South  Italian  art  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Muntz  is  invaluable  in  correlating  the 
art  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  with  its  life  and  its  politics. 
In  the  special  field  of  the  scientific  history  of  Architec- 
ture, the  greatest  modern  authority  is  Choisy,  whose 
"Histoire  de  1' Architecture "  (1899)  is  completed  by 
large  special  histories:  "L'Art  de  batir  chez  les  Ro- 
mains,"  "L'Art  de  batir  chez  les  Byzantins,"  and  "L'Art 
de  batir  chez  les  Egyptiens." 

Aside  from  the  great  Annual  Congress,  which  meets 
each  year  in  a  different  section  of  France,  the  two  main 
forums  for  archaeology  are  the  meetings  of  the  Academie 
des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres  of  the  French  Institute, 
and  the  Societe  Nationale  des  Antiquaires  de  France, 
both  of  which  publish  their  Compte-rendus  and  the  latter 
its  Memoires. 

Instruction  at  the  Universities.  As  in  most  other 
matters,  so  in  facilities  for  the  study  of  archaeology, 
Paris  is  the  center  of  France.  In  Paris,  naturally,  are 
found  the  richest  museums  and  libraries,  and  to  Paris, 
ultimately,  most  of  the  scholars  who  distinguish  them- 
selves are  drawn.  A  mere  enumeration  of  the  men  who 
are  engaged  in  teaching  in  the  higher  institutions  of  the 
capital  is  impressive. 


36  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Among  the  members  of  the  Faculty  of  the  University 
of  Paris  are:  Maxime  Collignon,  professor  of  Archae- 
ology, a  recognized  authority  on  the  history  of  Greek 
art.  His  "Histoire  de  la  Sculpture  grecque"  (2  vols., 
1892,  1897)  is  undoubtedly  the  best  history  of  Greek 
sculpture  that  has  yet  been  written.  His  other  writings 
include,  besides  numerous  articles  and  pamphlets, 
"Pergame"  (1900),  a  semi-popular  account  of  the  earlier 
excavations  at  Pergamon,  written  in  collaboration  with 
the  architect  Pontremoli;  "Le  Parthenon"  (1910-12),  a 
magnificently  illustrated  volume  on  the  finest  of  the 
Greek  temples;  "Les  statues  funeraires  dans  Fart 
grec"  (191 1).  He  lectures  regularly  on  some  aspect 
of  Greek  art,  and  offers  advanced  instruction  for  ad- 
vanced students.  Charles  Diehl,  professor  of  Byzantine 
History,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  modern  Byzan- 
tinists.  His  best  known  works  are  his  "Etudes  byzan- 
tines"  (1905);  "Figures  byzan tines"  (2  vols.,  1906,  1908); 
and  "Manuel  d'Art  byzantin"  (1910).  His  lectures 
deal  with  different  phases  of  Byzantine  history,  always 
with  considerable  emphasis  on  the  evidence  of  the  monu- 
ments. Maurice  Holleaux,  Charge  de  cours  in  Greek 
Literature  and  Epigraphy,  was  Director  of  the  French 
School  in  Athens  from  1904  to  191 2.  With  his  predeces- 
sor (and  successor)  Theophile  Homolle,  whose  long  work 
in  Greece  has  brought  great  honor  to  French  scholarship, 
he  is  engaged  in  editing  the  official  publication  of  the 
excavations  at  Delos,  "L'Exploration  archeologique  de 
Delos"  (begun  in  1909).  His  lectures  and  conferences 
usually  have  to  do  with  Greek  history,  with  special  con- 
sideration of  the  evidence  of  epigraphy,  fimile  Male, 
professor  of  the  History  of  Mediaeval  Art,  a  writer  of 
distinction  in  his  special  field.  Among  his  works  are 
"L'Art  reHgieux  de  la  fin  du  moyen  age  en  France" 
(1908),  and  "L'Art  reHgieux  du  xiii*"  siecle  en  France" 


ARCHAEOLOGY  37 

(3d  ed.,  1 9 10).     His  courses  deal  with  different  aspects 
of  the  art  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

From  the  faculty  of  the  College  de  France,  the  list  of 
names  is  equally  impressive:  Ernest  Babelon,  professor 
of  Ancient  and  Mediaeval  Numismatics,  is  Curator  of 
the  Department  of  Medals  and  Antiquities  in  the  Biblio- 
theque  Nationale,  and  is  a  recognized  authority  in  his 
particular  field.  Among  his  more  important  writings 
are  "Description  historique  et  chronologique  des  mon- 
naies  de  la  Republique  romaine"  (2  vols.,  1885,  1886); 
"Les  origines  de  la  Monnaie"  (1897);  "Traite  des  Mon- 
naies  grecques  et  romaines"  (5  vols.,  1901-10).  His 
courses  deal  with  different  phases  of  the  development 
of  ancient  coinage.  Rene  Cagnat,  professor  of  Roman 
Epigraphy  and  Archaeology,  a  scholar  whose  name  is 
closely  associated  with  the  exploration  of  Roman  Africa. 
Among  his  best  known  works  are  "  Cours  d'Epigraphie 
latine"  (3d  ed.  1898-1904);  "L'Armee  romaine 
d'Afrique  et  1 'Occupation  militaire  de  I'Afrique  sous 
les  empereurs"  (2  vols.,  1913);  and  many  articles  and 
books  having  to  do  with  Roman  Africa.  His  courses 
usually  deal  with  Roman  monuments  and  the  inter- 
pretation of  Latin  inscriptions.  Charles  Clermont- 
Ganneau,  professor  of  Semitic  Epigraphy  and  Archae- 
ology, a  scholar  deeply  versed  in  the  history  and  the 
monuments  of  Western  Asia,  author  of  "Archaeological 
Researches  in  Palestine  during  the  years  18 73-1 8 74" 
(2  vols.,  1896,  1899) ;  "Mission  en  Palestine  et  en  Phenicie 
entreprise  en  1881"  (1882);  "Recueil  d 'archeologie 
orientale"  (8  vols.,  1888-1907).  He  offers  every  year  a 
course  in  recently  discovered  Semitic  monuments.  Paul 
FoucART,  professor  of  Greek  Epigraphy  and  Archaeology, 
author  of  "Les  mysteres  d'Eleusis'*  (1914)-  His  courses 
commonly  deal  with  Greek  inscriptions.  Stephane 
GsELL,  professor  of  North  African  History,  who  has 


38  ARCHAEOLOGY 

conducted  excavations  in  Italy  as  well  as  in  his  chosen 
province.  His  works  include  "Les  Monuments  antiques 
de  TAlgerie"  (2  vols.,  1901);  "Atlas  archeologique  de 
I'Algerie"  (1911);  "Histoire  ancienne  de  I'Afrique  du 
Nord"  (vol.  I,  1 9 13;  to  be  complete  in  six  volumes). 
His  courses  in  recent  years  have  been  devoted  to  Carthage 
and  the  Punic  wars.  The  professorship  of  Egyptology 
was  long  held  by  Maspero,  by  whose  recent  death  the 
Faculty  has  lost  one  of  its  most  distinguished  members. 
His  work  in  Paris  will  no  doubt  be  ably  continued  by 
his  successor,  when  appointed. 

In  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  Section  des  Sciences 
historiques  et  philologiques,  several  courses  of  interest 
to  students  of  archaeology  are  offered.  Among  the 
Directeurs  d 'Etudes  in  the  section  are:  Bernard 
Haussoullier,  for  Greek  Epigraphy  and  Archaeology, 
well  known  as  one  of  the  investigators  of  the  temple 
at  Didyma  (cf.  "Didymes:  Fouilles  de  1895  et  de  1896," 
in  collaboration  with  E.  Pontremoli,  1904),  and  as  one 
of  the  authors  of  the  "Recueil  des  inscriptions  juridiques 
grecques"  (2  vols.,  1891-1904).  His  courses  are  devoted 
to  the  study  of  Greek  history  and  legal  antiquities,  with 
reference  especially  to  the  evidence  of  inscriptions  and 
the  papyri.  Antoine  Heron  de  Villefosse,  for  Latin 
Epigraphy  and  Roman  Archaeology,  Curator  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities  in  the  Louvre,  author  of  a  "Rapport 
sur  une  mission  archeologique  en  Algerie"  (1875),  "Le 
tresor  de  B  osco  Reale  "(1899),  and  numerous  articles.  He 
offers  one  course  in  inscriptions  relating  to  the  officials 
of  the  "tres  Galliae."  In  this  school,  also,  Clermont- 
Ganneau  offers  a  course  in  the  antiquities  of  Palestine, 
Phoenicia,  and  Syria,  and  another  in  Jewish  archae- 
ology; some  work  in  Egyptology  is  given  under  the 
direction  of  Paul  Guiyesse  and  Alexandre  Moret;  and 
studies  in  Assyrian  Philology  and  Archaeology  are  in  charge 


ARCHAEOLOGY  39 

of  the  learned  Victor  Scheil,  though  his  formal  courses 
in  recent  years  have  been  devoted  to  the  interpretation 
of  texts  and  to  palaeography  rather  than  to  archaeology. 
The  Ecole  du  Louvre,  founded  in  1882,  offers  an  inter- 
esting three-year  program  of  courses,  intended  primarily 
to  train  directors  and  curators  of  museums,  but  open 
to  auditors,  as  well  as  to  regularly  enrolled  students. 
The  subjects  covered  include  the  archaeology  of  France, 
Oriental  archaeology  and  ancient  ceramics,  Egyptian 
archaeology,  Greek  and  Roman  archaeology,  Semitic 
antiquities,  the  history  of  painting,  the  history  of  mediae- 
val. Renaissance,  and  modern  sculpture,  the  history  of 
French  art  in  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries,  and  the  history 
of  industrial  art  in  France.  The  work  in  Greek  and 
Roman  archaeology  is  under  the  direction  of  Heron  de 
ViLLEFOSSE,  who  has  already  been  mentioned.  The  pro- 
fessors for  the  other  subjects  are  officials  of  the  Louvre  and 
other  museums,  not  members  of  other  faculties.  Among 
them  are:  Georges  Benedite,  Curator  of  Egyptian  An- 
tiquities in  the  Louvre,  author  of  several  works  in  his 
special  field,  including  two  of  the  scholarly  catalogues 
of  the  Cairo  Museum.  Leonce  Benedite,  Curator 
of  the  Musee  National  du  Luxembourg,  a  prolific  writer 
on  modern  art,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Bulletin 
des  Musees"  and  "L 'Album  des  Peintres  lithographes." 
Paul  Leprieur,  Curator  of  the  Department  of  Paintings 
in  the  Louvre.  Andre  Michel,  Curator  of  Mediaeval, 
Renaissance,  and  Modern  Sculpture  in  the  Louvre,  best 
known  as  editor  of  the  comprehensive  "Histoire  de  I'Art 
depuis  les  premiers  temps  Chretiens  jusqu'a  nos  jours" 
(begun  in  1905,  and  still  in  course  of  pubHcation). 
Gaston  Migeon,  Curator  of  the  Department  of  the  Minor 
Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Renaissance,  and  Modern 
Times  in  the  Louvre,  an  authority  on  the  art  of  the 
East  as  well  as  that  of  the  West.    Pierre  de  Nolhac, 


40  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Curator  of  the  Musee  National  de  Versailles,  editor  of 
the  "Bibliotheque  litteraire  de  la  Renaissance."  He 
has  written  numerous  works  on  Versailles  and  the  famous 
persons  associated  with  it,  "Petrarque  et  I'humanisme," 
(2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  1907)  and  other  works  relating  to  the 
Renaissance.  Edmond  Pottier,  Curator  of  Oriental 
Antiquities  and  Ancient  Ceramics  in  the  Louvre,  a 
critic  who  makes  even  catalogues  interesting;  known 
to  classical  scholars  through  many  attractive  books 
and  articles  on  ancient  ceramics  and  terra-cottas,  and 
also  as  the  responsible  editor  of  aU  the  later  parts  of  the 
great  Daremberg  and  Saglio  "Dictionnaire  des  Antiquites 
grecques  et  romaines."  Salomon  Reinach,  Curator  of 
the  Musee  des  Antiquites  nationales  at  St.-Germain-en- 
Laye,  who  is,  perhaps,  the  best  known  of  all  the  French 
archaeologists,  a  man  of  vast  erudition  and  wide  inter- 
ests. He  has  placed  archaeologists  of  all  countries 
under  lasting  obligations  to  him  through  the  convenient 
books  of  reference  which  he  has  edited,  the  "Repertoire 
de  la  statuaire  grecque  et  romaine"  (4  vols.,  1897-1910); 
"Repertoire  des  vases  peints"  (2  vols.,  1899,  1900); 
"Repertoire  des  peintures  du  moyen  age  et  de  la  Renais- 
sance" (3  vols.,  1905-10);  "Repertoire  des  reliefs  grecs 
et  romains"  (3  vols.,  1909-12).  The  breadth  of  his 
interests  is  suggested  by  this  Hst,  and  even  more  by  the 
titles  of  some  of  his  other  books:  "Manuel  de  Philologie 
classique"  (2d  ed.,  1904);  "Cultes,  mythes,  et  religions" 
(4  vols.,  1905-12);  "Orpheus;  Histoire  generale  des 
Religions"  (5th  ed.,  1905).  His  "Apollo,"  a  brief  but 
scholarly  attempt  to  treat  the  history  of  art  from 
palaeohthic  times  to  the  present  day,  has  been  several 
times  re-issued  and  translated  into  other  languages. 
He  has  been  for  many  years  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
important  "Revue  archeologique,"  associated  formerly 
with  G.  Perrot,  now  with  E.  Pottier. 


ARCHAEOLOGY  41 

The  Ecole  Nationale  des  Beaux  Arts,  where  so  many 
of  our  foremost  American  architects  and  artists  have 
been  taught,  has  for  many  years  been  a  proof  of  the  close 
union  that  might  exist  in  so  many  other  spheres.  Its 
teaching  is  historical  as  well  as  technical,  and  it  has 
valuable  educational  material  in  casts  as  well  as  in  original 
works  and  in  reconstructions  of  ancient  monuments. 
Its  librarian  for  many  years,  Eugene  Mijntz,  was  one  of 
the  earliest,  most  inspiring  and  fruitful  historians  of 
Renaissance  art;  his  masterpiece  is  the  "Histoire  de  I'Art 
pendant  la  Renaissance"  (3  vols.,  1889-1891). 

Finally,  in  the  Ecole  Nationale  des  Charles,  intended 
primarily  to  train  archivists  and  librarians,  a  course  in 
the  Archaeology  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  given  by  Eugene 
Lefevre-Pontalis,  joint  editor  with  Robert  de  Las- 
TEYRiE  of  the  earlier  volumes  of  the  "  BibHographie  des 
travaux  historiques  et  archeologiques"  (1885  on),  of 
whose  works  "L 'Architecture  religieuse  dans  I'ancien 
diocese  de  Soissons  au  xi^  et  au  xii^  siecles"  (2  vols.,  1894- 
96)  is  perhaps  the  best  known. 

Other  Universities.  Of  opportunities  for  the  study 
of  archaeology  outside  of  Paris  it  is  impossible  to  give 
more  than  a  brief  account.  Most  of  the  fifteen  smaller 
universities  make  some  provision  for  archaeology  and 
related  subjects,  sometimes  with  reference  to  special 
conditions;  so,  in  the  University  of  Algiers,  instruction 
is  given  in  the  antiquities  and  geography  of  Africa  and 
in  Mohammedan  civilization  and  the  history  of  the 
Arabs.  Work  in  "archaeology"  is  formally  provided 
for  at  Aix;  in  "archaeology  and  the  history  of  art," 
at  Caen,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lyon,  and  Toulouse.  In 
several  universities,  the  professors  of  the  classics  offer 
courses  in  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities.  The  American 
student  will  occasionally  find  himself  attracted  to  a 
particular  place  by  the  special  attainments  of  one  of 


42  ARCHAEOLOGY 

its  professors,  but  in  such  a  brief  account  as  this  it  is 
impossible  to  enter  into  details. 

Museums.  In  special  facilities  for  graduate  work, 
Paris  again  is  "facile  princeps"  among  the  cities  of 
France.  Of  its  more  than  forty  museums,  over  twenty 
contain  collections  which  are  of  interest  to  the  student  of 
archaeology  and  the  history  of  art.  First  among  them 
stands  the  great  Musee  du  Louvre,  with  its  wealth  of 
monuments  of  sculpture,  painting,  and  the  minor  arts 
from  many  regions  and  periods.  Especially  important 
are  the  collections  of  Greek  and  Roman  sculpture;  Egyp- 
tian, Babylonian,  and  Assyrian  antiquities  (the  stele  of 
the  Hammurapi  Code  is  here);  Greek  vases;  and  Renais- 
sance and  modern  paintings  and  sculptures.  The  Musee 
des  Antiquites  nationales  at  St.-Germain-en-Laye  con- 
tains the  largest  collection  in  the  world  of  antiquities  of 
France,  covering  the  prehistoric,  Gallic,  Gallo-Roman, 
and  French  periods  to  the  Carolingian  epoch.  In  the 
Trocadero  are  the  Musee  de  Sculpture  comparee,  con- 
taining casts  of  important  monuments  of  many  different 
periods;  the  Musee  d'Ethnographie  and  the  Musee 
Indo-Chinois,  the  character  of  which  is  sufficiently  in- 
dicated by  the  names.  The  Musee  de  la  Bibliotheque 
Nationale  contains  not  only  manuscripts,  early  printed 
books,  and  prints,  but  in  the  Cabinet  des  Medailles 
it  possesses  important  collections  of  vases,  gems,  coins 
and  medals.  The  Musee  de  Cluny  is  devoted  to  the 
art  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance;  the  Musee 
Guimet  to  that  of  the  Far  East;  and  there  are  many 
other  special  museums  and  private  collections  of  im- 
portance. Moreover,  Paris  is  one  of  the  great  cen- 
ters of  the  trade  in  antiquities,  and  the  student  will 
constantly  find  opportunities  to  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  prices  and  methods  of  buying  and  seUing  objects 
of  art. 


ARCHAEOLOGY  43 

With  several  of  the  smaller  universities,  museums  of 
original  materials  and  reproductions  are  connected.  In 
these  museums,  many  objects  of  archaeological  interest, 
dating  from  the  Old  Kingdom  in  Egypt  to  modern 
times,  are  to  be  found.  Special  mention  may  be  made 
of  the  collections  at  Bordeaux  (Greek  and  Graeco- 
Roman  sculpture  and  vases  and  monuments  of  early 
Iberic  art);  Lille  (casts,  photographs,  and  some  original 
monuments);  Lyon  (large  collection  of  casts  and  photo- 
graphs from  Egyptian,  Greek,  and  Graeco-Roman 
monuments);  Montpellier  (casts  from  ancient  sculpture, 
photographs,  and  prints);  and  Nancy  (casts  and  some 
original  monuments).  Interesting  collections  of  local  an- 
tiquities, often  rich  in  Roman  and  Gallic  sculpture,  are  at 
Nimes,  Aries,  Aix,  Langres,  Autun,  Vienne,  and  Narbonne. 

Libraries.  Among  the  libraries  of  Paris,  the  great 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  with  its  3,000,000  volumes,  is 
especially  rich  in  works  on  archaeology;  and  its  110,000 
manuscripts  and  some  1,000,000  prints  offer  many 
opportunities  for  research  work  along  documentary  lines. 
There  are,  besides,  several  special  hbraries,  where  books 
not  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  can  often  be  found. 
Among  these  the  most  important  are  the  Bibliotheque 
d'Art  et  d ' Archeologie  (some  100,000  volumes);  the 
Bibliotheque  du  Musee  de  Sculpture  comparee  (about 
2,000  volumes  and  over  60,000  drawings,  prints,  and 
photographs);  the  Bibliotheque  de  1' Association  pour 
I'Encouragement  des  £tudes  grecques  (about  5,000 
volumes);  the  Bibliotheque  de  I'Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts 
(rich  in  drawings,  photographs,  and  illustrated  works); 
and  the  Bibliotheque  de  la  Societe  des  Antiquaires  de 
France  (about  4,000  volumes). 

Periodicals.  The  "Revne  Archeologique "  covers  the 
entire  field,  with  admirable  summaries  of  investigations 


44  ARCHAEOLOGY 

and  discoveries  everywhere.  The  "Gazette  des  Beaux 
Arts"  occupies  a  similar  position  in  the  more  restricted 
field  of  art  history.  The  "Bulletin  Monumental"  does 
the  same,  but  mainly  for  France.  The  most  sumptuous 
medium  for  the  publication  of  important  works  of  historic 
art  is  supplied  by  the  foHos  of  the  "Monuments  Piot," 
an  endowed  periodical  of  the  Academie  des  Inscriptions, 
whose  only  rival  is  the  "Denkmaler"  of  the  German 
Institute.  Prehistoric  studies  are  best  represented  in 
"L' Anthropologic"  and  the  "Revue  de  I'ficole  d'Anthro- 
pologie."  The  "Annales  du  Musee  Guimet"  make  a 
specialty  of  the  Far  East;  so  does  the  "Bulletin  de 
I'Ecole  frangaise  de  F Extreme-Orient."  Other  Eastern 
spheres  are  taken  care  of  in  the  "Revue  £)gyptologique," 
the  "Revue  d'Assyriologie,"  the  "Revue  d'  Archeologie 
Orientale,"  the  "Revue  Semitique"  and  the  "Memoires" 
of  the  Mission  au  Caire. 

Special  subjects  have  their  organs  also,  as  the  "Revue 
£pigraphique"  and  "L'Annee  fipigraphique";  the 
"Revue  de  Numismatique,"  and  the  "Gazette  Numis- 
matique  frangaise."  Several  reviews  not  strictly  archaeo- 
logical have  a  strong  archaeological  section,  such  as  the 
"Revue  de  I'Histoire  des  Religions."  Each  of  the 
Archaeological  Schools  has  its  special  review:  that  at 
Athens,  the  "Bulletin  de  Correspondance  Hellenique"; 
that  at  Rome,  the  "Melanges  d 'Archeologie  et 
d'Histoire."  Both  are  devoted  largely  to  Greek  and 
Roman  studies,  but  give  a  fair  share  to  the  Christian 
period.  A  very  special  review  is  the  "Revue  de  I'Art 
Chretien."  Devoted  to  France  almost  exclusively  is 
"L'Ami  des  Monuments." 


Astronomy 


Astronomy' 

In  all  branches  of  Astronomy — in  Geodesy,  Observa- 
tional Astronomy,  Astrophysics,  and  Celestial  Mechanics 
—  France  has  made  noteworthy  contributions.  In  the 
first  three  named,  she  has  kept  abreast  of  all  progress 
and  has  often  led  the  way;  and  in  Celestial  Mechanics, 
or  Mathematical  Astronomy,  she  is  well-nigh  supreme. 

Her  work  in  Mathematics,  in  developing  methods  of 
analysis  and  Knes  of  attack;  and  in  Physics,  in  estab- 
lishing standards  of  wave-lengths  of  light,  in  fact  in  the 
whole  field  of  radiation;  is  reflected  in  the  progress  of 
Astronomy.  It  sometimes  happens,  moreover,  that 
noteworthy  advances  follow  achievements  in  fields  quite 
apart  from  that  of  the  direct  research;  and  as  one  such 
instance,  Guillaume  's  discovery  of  invar,  in  relation  to 
the  errors,  due  to  temperature  effects,  which  creep  into 
all  instrumental  observations,  must  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  indirect  influences  promoting  advances  of  prime 
importance. 

Celestial  Mechanics.  Since  the  publication  of  New- 
ton's Principia  in  1686,  the  contributions  of  all  other 
nations  combined  would  scarcely  equal  in  this  field  the 
contributions  of  France  alone. 

It  was  Claihaut  (17 13-1783)  who  first  pubhshed  the 
differential  equations  of  motion  for  the  problem  of 
three  bodies,  and  their  ten  integrals.     The  formidable 

^[Drafting  Committee :  Philip  Fox,  Northwestern  University;  G.  E. 
Hale,  Carnegie  Institution;  F.  R.  Moulton  and  W.  D.  MacMillan, 
University  of  Chicago;  H.  N.  Russell,  Princeton  University. — Ed.] 

47 


48  ASTRONOMY 

mathematical  difficulties  of  this  problem  and  the  im- 
portance of  its  solution  for  Astronomy,  particularly  for 
an  understanding  of  the  motion  of  the  moon,  challenged 
the  attention  and  abilities  of  the  mathematicians  of  the 
entire  world.  No  great  mathematician,  until  very 
recent  times,  has  escaped  the  charm  of  this  problem. 
From  France,  however,  has  come  the  greater  part  of  our 
present  knowledge  of  a  subject  which  has  tested  to 
the  utmost  the  strength  of  the  human  intellect  since  the 
time  of  the  immortal  Newton.  The  first  two  analytical 
theories  of  the  motion  of  the  moon  were  presented  on  the 
same  day  to  the  Paris  Academy  by  Clairaut  and  by 
D  'Alembert  (17 1 7-1 783),  and  these  were  the  first  efforts 
at  an  analytical  solution  of  the  problem  of  three  bodies. 
D 'Alembert  introduced  even  the  rotation  of  the  earth 
into  his  theories,  and  thus  developed  the  theory  of  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes.  The  first  rigorous  solution 
of  the  problem  of  three  bodies,  due  to  Lagrange  (1736- 
1813),  is  contained  in  a  paper  of  great  elegance  published 
in  1772.  Many  other  theorems  of  great  importance  were 
contained  in  his  later  papers.  In  his  epochal  "Meca- 
nique  analytique"  he  made  it  his  boast  that  he  had  freed 
the  subject  of  mechanics  from  geometrical  intuition,  and 
brought  all  of  its  problems  into  the  domain  of  pure 
analysis.  In  striking  contrast  to  the  method  of 
Lagrange  was  that  of  Poisson  (1781-1840),  who  strove 
to  develop  the  geometrical  intuitions  to  the  utmost  in 
the  solutions  of  mechanical  problems. 

Laplace  (1749-1827),  however,  even  more  than 
Lagrange,  devoted  himself  to  the  mechanics  of  the 
celestial  bodies.  The  theory  of  the  motion  of  the  moon, 
the  mutual  perturbations  of  the  planets  and  their  satel- 
lites, and  the  determination  of  the  orbits  of  comets, 
received  masterly  treatment  in  his  hands;  and  no  prob- 
lem in   this  field   escaped  his   critical   attention.     His 


ASTRONOMY  49 

"Traite  de  la  Mecanique  celeste,"  in  five  large  volumes, 
will  always  be  one  of  the  great  classics  in  the  domain 
of  mathematical  astronomy.  His  Nebular  Hypothesis 
of  the  origin  of  the  solar  system  exercised  a  profound 
influence  upon  the  fundamental  conceptions  of  almost 
every  science  during  the  entire  nineteenth  century.  It 
was  the  first  successful  effort  in  the  modern  doctrine  of 
evolution. 

The  theory  of  the  motion  of  the  moon  was  a  highly 
favored  subject  during  the  first  half  of  the  last  century. 
The  theory  developed  by  Laplace  was  carried  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection  by  Damoiseau  (i  768-1 846).  A 
second  theory  was  worked  out  extensively  by  De  Ponte- 
couLANT  (1795-1874);  a  third,  and  by  far  the  most 
perfect  theory  was  developed  by  Delaunay  (1816- 
1872).  The  theory  of  Delaunay,  which  was  the  result 
of  twenty  years  of  constant  labor,  was  published  between 
i860  and  1867. 

A  dramatic  event  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  immortalized  the  names  of  Le  Verrier  (I8II- 
I877)  of  France  and  Adams  of  England.  Their  mathe- 
matical analysis  led  these  two  men  independently  to 
point  to  a  certain  position  in  the  sky  and  say,  '  Tn  that 
direction  lies  a  planet  not  yet  seen  by  mortal  eyes." 
This  prediction,  verified  promptly  by  the  telescope,  has 
been  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  great  triumphs  of 
man's  powers  of  analysis.  It  was  also  under  Le  Verrier's 
directions  that  the  theory  of  the  perturbations  of  the 
planets  was  carried  to  its  high  state  of  perfection. 

In  the  last  decade  of  the  last  century  Tisserand 
(1845-)  of  Paris  published  his  "Traite  de  la  Mecanique 
celeste,"  which  is  today  the  standard  work  of  reference 
in  its  field.  It  is  complete  in  its  details  and  embodies 
all  the  essential  developments  in  the  field  of  celestial 
mechanics  up  to  the  time  of  Poincare. 


50  ASTRONOMY 

The  last  name  which  will  be  mentioned  in  this  field, 
and  perhaps  the  greatest,  is  that  of  Henri  Poincare 
(1854-1912).  His  remarkable  work  "  Methodes  nouvelles 
de  la  Mecanique  celeste,"  furnished  a  great  wealth  of  new 
ideas,  which  were  developed  with  the  very  highest 
mathematical  skill.  Periodic  orbits  of  various  types, 
asymptotically  periodic  orbits,  and  integral  invariants, 
were  the  fundamental  conceptions  which  were  examined 
with  all  of  the  resources  of  modern  mathematics  and 
with  all  of  the  rigor  which  modern  mathematics  demands. 
It  is  a  modest  statement  to  say  that  with  Poincare 
begins  a  new  epoch  in  celestial  mechanics.  In  addition 
to  his  contributions  to  the  theory  of  the  motions  of  the 
celestial  bodies  should  be  mentioned  his  contributions  to 
the  theory  of  their  figures.  It  was  Clairaut  who  first 
showed  that  an  oblate  spheroid  is  a  figure  of  equilibrium 
of  a  slowly  rotating  fluid  mass.  Poincare  showed  that 
besides  the  ellipsoidal  figures  already  known  there 
exists  an  infinity  of  other  forms  corresponding  to  higher 
rates  of  rotation.  His  theorems  relating  to  stable  and 
unstable  figures  of  equilibrium  are  of  great  importance. 
These  investigations  find  their  application  not  merely  in 
the  figures  of  such  planets  as  Jupiter  and  Saturn  but  also 
in  the  question  of  the  origin  of  binary  and  multiple  stars. 

With  such  a  wealth  of  noble  tradition  in  the  field  of 
Celestial  Mechanics,  it  is  quite  safe  to  assume  that  the 
Universities  of  France,  and  especially  of  Paris,  will 
always  be  a  source  of  inspiration  to  students  who  may 
be  interested  in  this  field. 

Geodesy.  The  monumental  works  of  the  French  in 
the  past  are  being  paralleled  by  contemporary  contribu- 
tions. This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  geodetic  work  in 
the  recent  achievement  of  the  expedition  under  Bour- 
geois, which  has  remeasured  with  the  highest  precision 


PIERRE  SIMON  de  LAPLACE  (1749-1827) 


ASTRONOMY 


ASTRONOMY  51 

the  "arc  of  Peru,"  — that  arc  which  when  measured  by 
French  astronomers  in  an  earher  century  afforded  the 
first  practical  proof  of  the  eUipticity  of  the  earth.  The 
same  scale  of  achievement  is  seen  in  the  work  of  precise 
leveling  conducted  by  Lallemand  and  his  associates, 
repeating  and  extending  the  earlier  work  of  Bourdaloue. 
The  French  have  been  very  active  in  developing  the 
application  of  wireless  telegraphy  in  longitude  deter- 
minations. This  is  illustrated  by  their  observations 
between  Paris  and  Poulkovo,  Paris  and  points  in  Al- 
geria, and  culminating  in  the  Paris- Washington  campaign 
of  1913. 

Observational  Astronomy.  France  has  equipped  many 
observatories  where  work  is  being  conducted,  following 
carefully  prepared  plans,  well  organized,  and  actively 
executed.  The  long  series  of  publications  from  these 
institutions — Paris,  Bordeaux,  Nice,  Abbadie,  Toulouse, 
Meudon,  Besangon,  Marseille,  Lyon,  Algiers — bear 
ample  testimony  of  their  fruitfulness.  In  the  field  of 
observations  of  position,  the  most  notable  among 
many  excellent  star  catalogues  is  that  of  the  Paris  Ob- 
servatory, in  eight  volumes.  Bossert's  catalogue  of 
proper  motions  is  important  in  any  work  dealing  with 
stellar  motion.  Double  stars  have  been  actively  observed 
at  Toulouse  and  by  Jonckheere,  who  made  many  and 
important  discoveries  in  this  field,  at  the  Observatoire 
d'Hem  and  later  at  Lille.  In  the  discovery  of  celestial 
bodies  the  French  observers  present  about  sixty  comets, 
about  180  asteroids,  and  many  nebulae.  Here  the 
names  Charlois,  Chacornac,  Coggia,  Perrotin,  the 
brothers  Henry,  Stephan,  Borrelly,  Temple,  Giaco- 
BiNi,  QuENissET,  and  others,  are  familiar.  In  photo- 
metric work  the  numerous  and  careful  observations  of 
LuiZET  are  of  especial  value. 


52  ASTRONOMY 

Practical  Astronomy.  Among  astronomical  instru- 
ments of  French  invention,  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  equatorial  coude  of  Loewy  and  Puiseux;  the  in- 
dependent design  of  the  spectroheHograph  by  Deslan- 
DRES  (at  practically  the  same  time  as  by  the  American 
Hale);  the  "  spectroenregistreur  des  vitesses"  of 
Deslandres;  and  the  recent  use  of  the  "astrolabe  a 
prisme"  in  the  determination  of  latitude  and  time. 

In  spectroscopy,  the  French  contributions  to  the 
development  of  the  science  have  been  very  great.  In 
solar  physics,  they  include  the  discovery  of  the  spectro- 
scopic visibility  of  the  solar  prominences,  independently 
of  solar  eclipses,  by  Janssen  in  1868  (also  made  inde- 
pendently by  LocKYER  in  England) ;  the  recent  researches 
of  Deslandres  (whose  spectro-heliograms  are  in  many 
respects  of  unrivalled  excellence)  upon  the  upper  layers 
of  the  solar  atmosphere  and  the  relative  motion  of  their 
parts.  In  stellar  spectroscopy,  they  include  the 
FiZEAU  extension  of  the  Doppler  principle,  which  made 
possible  the  whole  movement  for  the  spectroscopic  de- 
termination of  radial  velocity;  the  discovery  of  those 
remarkable  bodies  which  are  still  known,  in  honor  of 
their  discoverers,  as  the  Wolf-Rayet  stars;  the  spectro- 
scopic work  of  Hamy;  and  the  work  of  Fabry  and  his 
collaborators  on  the  Orion  nebula. 

In  astronomical  photography,  France  occupies  a 
leading  position.  This  is  perhaps  natural,  because  the 
development  of  photography  is  in  so  large  a  part  due  to 
the  French.  The  Atlas  of  the  Moon,  by  Loewy  and 
Puiseux,  is  the  standard  in  its  field;  the  solar  photo- 
graphs of  Janssen  are  in  a  class  by  themselves;  but 
above  all  other  work  in  importance  towers  the  "Carte 
Photographique  du  Ciel,"  which,  as  its  name  implies, 
owes  its  inception  largely  to  French  influence.  The 
headquarters    of    the    international    committee    which 


ASTRONOMY  53 

supervises  this  great  enterprise  has  always  been  in  Paris, 
and  zones  have  been  undertaken  and  in  large  measure 
completed  by  the  Observatories  of  Paris,  Bordeaux, 
Toulouse,  and  Algiers.  This  committee  has  also  or- 
ganized other  important  investigations,  notably  the 
campaign  of  observations  on  the  asteroid  Eros  in  1900- 
1901,  which  has  resulted  in  the  most  precise  determina- 
tion of  the  distance  of  the  Sun  that  has  yet  been  made. 
The  influence  of  France  has  been  directed  toward 
friendly  cooperation  on  the  large  problems  of  astronomy, 
and  thus  Paris  naturally  has  been  the  seat  of  many 
important  astronomical  Conferences.  At  the  Conference 
on  fundamental  star  positions,  in  1896,  a  uniform  system 
of  values  of  the  fundamental  constants  of  astronomy 
was  adopted  for  use  in  all  astronomical  ephemerides. 
At  the  "Conference  Internationale  des  fiphemerides 
astronomiques,"  in  191 1,  a  uniform  system  of  presenta- 
tion of  astronomical  data  was  adopted  by  all  the  national 
Ephemerides,  and  arrangements  were  perfected  for 
exchange  of  work  involved  in  their  computation  and 
publication;  these  have  been  among  the  very  few  frag- 
ments of  international  cooperation  to  survive  the  shock 
of  the  Great  War. 

Instruction.  University  of  Paris.  Here  the  principal 
courses  of  interest  to  the  advanced  student  of  Astronomy 
are  the  following:  By  Akdoyer,  a  distinguished  student  of 
all  matters  which  bear  upon  elegance  and  accuracy  of  com- 
putation: 1 91 4-1 5,  Theory  of  eclipses;  191 5-16,  Elemen- 
tary solutions  of  the  fundamental  problems  of  Celestial 
mechanics.  By  Appell,  widely  known  as  a  mathematician : 
1914-15, 191 5-16,  Celestial  Mechanics,  Works  of  Poincare. 
By  PuiSEUX,  known  for  his  studies  on  the  Moon  and  on 
other  astrophysical  questions:  19 14-15,  Stars  and  Nebu- 
lae; 191 5-16,  The  Sun,  solar  spectrum,  eclipses. 


54  ASTRONOMY 

Other  Universities.  Courses  in  Astronomy  are  given  in 
almost  all  the  provincial  universities  of  France.  The  op- 
portunities of  most  interest  to  the  graduate  student  are 
likely  to  be  found  at 

Marseille,  where  the  observatory  is  open  to  foreign 
men  of  science  for  research,  and  practical  instruction  for 
students  is  arranged,  under  the  direction  of  Fabry,  the 
distinguished  spectroscopist,  known  for  his  work  on  the 
precise  measurement  of  wave-lengths. 

Lyon,  where  the  observatory  at  St.-Genis-Laval, 
though  principally  devoted  to  research,  admits  students 
for  practical  instruction  in  astronomy,  under  the  care  of 
LuizET,  one  of  the  best-known  students  of  variable  stars. 

Toulouse,  where  the  observatory,  which  has  taken 
an  important  share  in  the  preparation  of  the  great  inter- 
national photographic  "Carte  du  Ciel,"  admits  foreign 
investigators,  and  gives  practical  instruction  to  students 
in  the  University. 

The  observatories  of  Algiers  and  Bordeaux,  which 
are  also  doing  work  of  the  first  quality,  are  likewise  con- 
nected with  the  Universities  situated  in  these  cities. 


Botany  and 
Agriculture 


Botany 


French  botanists  have  been  conspicuous  chiefly  in 
the  development  of  Taxonomy  and  Palaeobotany. 

The  first  great  name  in  the  history  of  classification  is 
that  of  TouRNEFORT  (1656-1 708),  Professor  at  the  Royal 
Gardens  in  Paris.  He  was  the  founder  of  genera;  that  is, 
he  was  the  first  who  organized  groups  of  species  into  the 
next  higher  category  of  classification.  Later  Antoine 
DE  JussiEU,  Director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History 
in  Paris,  published  the  first  natural  system  of  classifica- 
tion in  his  "Genera  Plantarum"  (1789),  in  which  he 
first  established  the  category  of  classification  known  as 
families,  which  are  natural  groups  of  genera.  Then 
Auguste  DE  Candolle,  first  of  Paris  and  later  of  Geneva, 
first  grouped  families  into  orders,  the  next  higher  cate- 
gory of  classification,  and  established  a  sequence  of 
families  long  used  in  all  manuals  of  botany. 

As  a  consequence  of  this  early  work  in  classification, 
the  Herbarium  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  contains  more 
of  the  early  "t3^es"  of  North  American  plants  than 
any  other  European  collection,  and  must  always  be 
consulted  in  any  monographic  work. 

One  of  the  outstanding  names  in  the  history  of  French 
botany  is  that  of  Lamarck  (i  744-1829),  who  for  twenty- 
five  years  was  Director  of  the  Royal  Gardens,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  "Jardin  des  Plantes,"  which  has  been 
used  ever  since.  He  was  the  author  of  the  first  "Flora  of 
France,"  the  pioneer  manual  of  French  botany.    It  was 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  J.  M.  Coulter,  University  of  Chicago. — 
Ed.] 

57 


58  BOTANY 

during  his  activities  as  a  botanist  that  an  unusual  number 
of  North  American  plants  came  to  Paris  for  identifica- 
tion, and  that  the  herbarium  under  his  direction  became 
rich  in  American  "types."  Later  Lamarck  became  a 
zoologist,  and  proposed  the  first  great  explanation  of 
organic  evolution,  which  is  now  usually  referred  to  as 
"Lamarckism." 

The  fossil  flora  of  France  is  one  of  the  best  preserved 
in  the  world,  and  this  has  been  taken  advantage  of  in 
the  strong  development  of  Palaeobotany  by  such  leaders 
as  Brongniart,  who  published  the  first  extensive  ac- 
count of  fossil  plants ;  followed  by  de  Saporta,  Renault, 
Zeiller,  Bertrand,  Grand-Eury,  and  Lignier.  This 
very  unusual  group  of  palaeobotanists  has  contributed 
more  to  our  knowledge  of  ancient  vegetation  than  any 
group  of  palaeobotanists  in  the  world. 

The  more  modern  fields  of  botany,  as  morphology, 
plant  pathology,  anatomy,  ecology,  and  plant  breeding, 
have  received  important  contributions  from  such  in- 
vestigators as  Van  Tieghem,  who  first  put  the  study  of 
vascular  anatomy  upon  its  modern  scientific  basis; 
Bonnier,  who  was  a  pioneer  in  the  study  of  the  effect 
of  environment  on  plants,  especially  the  changes  induced 
in  the  same  plant  by  alpine  and  lowland  habitats;  Gui- 
GNARD,  who  was  a  pioneer  in  the  field  of  modern  morphol- 
ogy, especially  contributing  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
reproduction  and  embryology  of  the  higher  plants,  and 
discovering  the  phenomenon  of  double  fertilization; 
and  in  addition  Baillon,  Dangeard,  Sauvageau, 
CosTANTiN,  and  Prilleux. 

Instruction  at  Paris.  The  different  institutions  com- 
ing under  the  general  title  of  the  University  of  Paris 
offer  unusual  and  varied  opportunities  to  students  of 
botany,  especially  the  Sorbonne,  the  ficole  superieure  de 


JEAN  LOUIS  LEON  GUIGNARD  (1852-) 


BOTANY  59 

Pharmade,  and  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle.  The 
laboratories  are  well  equipped  and  rich  in  material,  and 
the  investigators  in  charge  are  constant  contributors  to 
botanical  literature.  Among  the  more  notable  teachers 
and  investigators  now  available  are  the  following: 

At  the  Sorbonne,  Bonnier  lectures  upon  the  chem- 
istry of  plant  nutrition,  a  fundamental  subject  in  scien- 
tific agriculture.  Molliard  supplements  the  point  of 
view  developed  by  Bonnier,  by  means  of  lectures  in  the 
physics  of  plants.  Together  these  two  courses  intro- 
duce the  student  to  the  great  modern  field  of  plant 
physiology.  In  addition,  Matruchot  is  an  authority 
upon  the  lower  plant  groups  (algae,  fungi,  and  bacteria), 
and  includes  in  his  work  with  these  groups  a  course  in 
plant  pathology. 

At  the  £cole  superieure  de  Pharmacie,  a  notable 
figure  is  that  of  Guignard,  pioneer  in  modern  morphol- 
ogy, whose  discoveries  and  technique  in  this  field  are 
surpassed  in  no  laboratory.  His  material  includes  chiefly 
the  higher  plants,  but  associated  with  him  is  Radais, 
an  authority  in  cryptogams.  The  whole  range  of  plant 
morphology,  therefore,  is  presented  by  these  two  in- 
vestigators. 

At  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle  a  notable  group 
of  three  investigators  supplement  one  another,  and  offer 
a  wide  range  af  opportunity.  Lecomte  deals  with  the 
phanerogams,  while  Mangin  is  a  speciahst  in  cryptogams. 
Perhaps  the  unique  opportunity,  however,  is  offered  by 
CosTANTiN  in  his  remarkable  work  on  the  scientific 
culture  of  plants.  Recently  he  has  solved  the  riddle  of 
orchid  culture,  discovering  that  an  associated  parasite  is 
necessary  for  seed  germination.  This  indicates  the 
fundamental  nature  of  his  culture  studies. 

Opportunities  Outside  of  Paris.  There  are  at  least 
three  botanical  institutions  outside  Paris  that  deserve 


6o  BOTANY 

special  mention  because  of  the  unusual  opportunities 
they  offer. 

The  Laboratoire  de  Biologie  vegetale  at  Fontainebleau 
is  established  in  that  famous  forest,  and  furnishes  a 
unique  opportunity  for  what  may  be  called  field  studies, 
in  contrast  with  laboratory  studies.  The  investigation 
of  the  activities  of  plants  in  the  open  is  a  necessary 
supplement  to  a  knowledge  of  their  structures  as  revealed 
in  the  laboratory.  No  student  of  botany  in  France  should 
fail  to  come  in  contact  with  the  Fontainebleau  establish- 
ment. 

At  Montpellier,  the  Institut  de  Botanique  in  connec- 
tion with  the  university  is  one  of  the  famous  establish- 
ments of  the  world.  Its  well  equipped  laboratories  and 
library  and  its  extensive  botanic  garden  have  long  been 
used  in  connection  with  important  research  work.  The 
distinguishing  feature  of  the  institute  is  its  important 
work  in  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  forestry.  In 
addition  to  the  equipment  referred  to,  there  is  a  moun- 
tain laboratory  (Laboratoire  du  mont  Aigoual),  with  an 
elevation  of  1300  meters,  which  is  organized  for  the 
study  of  mountain  plants  and  alpine  conditions. 

At  Nancy,  the  Institut  Agricole  is  a  famous  establish- 
ment, providing  instruction  in  the  profession  of  scientific 
agriculture  in  Europe  or  in  the  French  colonies.  Its 
five  sections  indicate  the  scope  of  the  work  and  the 
opportunity:  agriculture,  dairy-farming,  economics, 
colonial  studies,  and  forestry. 


AGRICULTURE' 

The  recent  history  of  agriculture  in  France  has  been 
that  of  a  general  movement,  at  first  opposed,  but  finally 
remarkably  successful.  No  training  in  agriculture  is 
complete  without  including  some  knowledge  of  the 
organization  and  methods  developed  in  France. 

The  first  movement  was  in  the  direction  of  agricultural 
education.  In  1848  the  goverrmient  adopted  a  plan 
which  provided  agricultural  teaching  of  three  grades: 
(i)  elementary  practical  instruction,  (2)  secondary 
practical  and  theoretical  instruction,  and  (3)  advanced 
training  in  the  Institut  National  Agronomique.  From 
the  beginning  good  results  were  obtained,  but  opposi- 
tion led  to  the  suppression  of  the  Institut,  and  to  a  re- 
duction in  the  number  of  the  other  schools.  Later, 
through  the  efforts  of  Eugene  Tisserand,  a  successful 
organization  of  agricultural  education  was  established, 
and  the  Institut  National  Agronomique  was  re-estab- 
lished with  a  competent  staff,  and  since  1876  has  been 
demonstrating  its  great  usefulness. 

Secondary  instruction  is  given  in  the  three  great  central 
schools  of  Grignon,  Montpeliier,  and  Rennes;  horti- 
culture is  cared  for  by  the  Ecole  Nationale  d'Horti- 
culture,  founded  at  Versailles  in  1874;  while  the  special 
needs  of  various  regions  have  been  met  by  secondary 
schools.  Between  the  farm  schools,  intended  to  train 
skilled  laborers  in  the  practical  side  alone,  and  the 
secondary  schools,  there  seemed  to  be  too  wide  an  inter- 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  J.  M.  Coulter,  University  of  Chicago. — 
Ed.] 

61 


62  BOTANY 

val,  and  to  meet  this  deficiency  a  law  was  passed  in 
1875  organizing  experimental  agricultural  schools  to 
assist  in  the  training  of  farmers'  sons  and  daughters. 
Traveling  schools  also  went  from  district  to  district,  giving 
similar  instruction  in  short  courses. 

In  1879  ^  law  was  passed  providing  for  professors  and 
administrators  of  agriculture  to  visit  the  various  dis- 
tricts, and  from  that  time  they  have  played  an  important 
role  in  organizing  short  courses,  conferences,  agricult- 
ural societies,  mutual  insurance  societies,  farmers' 
mutual  loan  companies,  and  organizations  promoting 
cooperation  in  buying,  selling  and  producing.  Also 
demonstration  fields  and  experiment  stations,  together 
with  a  variety  of  experimental  research  laboratories, 
were  established  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

The  progress  of  agricultural  education  has  been  aided 
largely  through  the  efforts  of  agricultural  societies.  The 
Societe  Nationale  d'Agriculture,  founded  in  1761,  is 
foremost  among  these  societies,  and  is  now  very  properly 
properly  called  the  Academic  d'Agriculture.  Its  annals 
for  a  century  and  a  half  have  contained  the  names  of 
eminent  scientists,  who  have  contributed  to  the  develop- 
ment of  agriculture  through  chemistry,  physics,  botany, 
and  zoology.  It  is  still  of  great  assistance  in  bringing 
the  results  of  science  to  the  solution  of  soil  problems. 

Several  other  large  societies  are  grouped  about  the 
Academie  d'Agriculture,  ranging  from  La  Societe  des 
Agriculteurs  de  France,  the  oldest  of  the  societies,  with 
9000  members  scattered  throughout  the  country,  to  the 
recently  founded  Societe  Nationale  d'Encouragement 
a  I'Agriculture.  La  Societe  Nationale  d'Horticulture  de 
France  for  25  years  has  been  prominent  in  caring  for 
the  horticultural  interests,  while  vine  growers  are  rep- 
resented by  La  Societe  des  Viticulteurs  dc  France.  About 
these  large   organizations  are  grouped   very   numerous 


AGRICULTURE  63 

smaller  societies,  all  contributing  to  the  cultivation  of 
interest  in  agriculture  by  means  of  bulletins,  meetings, 
and  fairs. 

A  summary  of  the  advancement  in  agricultural  educa- 
tion in  France  during  the  past  40  years  is  as  follows: 
establishment  of  education  in  scientific  agriculture 
through  the  Institut  National  Agronomique;  providing 
for  secondary  agricultural  education  in  national  schools; 
organization  of  primary  agricultural  education  by  estab- 
lishing schools  of  practical  agriculture;  creation  of  a 
complete  staff  of  professors  to  teach  the  best  and  most 
useful  methods  in  rural  communities;  inauguration  of 
practical  agricultural  instruction  for  girls  and  popular 
instruction  for  adults  through  traveling  schools  of  short 
courses,  held  during  the  winter;  dissemination  and 
popularization  of  agricultural  knowledge  by  agricultural 
societies ;  supplementing  theoretical  and  practical  instruc- 
tion by  demonstrations  at  various  fairs,  permitting 
farmers  to  know  and  appreciate  the  annual  advance  of 
agricultural  science. 

Another  notable  feature  of  French  agriculture  is 
agricultural  cooperation.  While  only  a  minority  of  the 
farmers  have  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  instruction 
provided,  economic  stress  has  tended  to  bring  all  the 
farmers  together.  In  1884  a  law  was  passed  for  the 
organization  of  professional  syndicates,  and  by  an 
amendment  it  was  extended  to  include  the  farmers. 
The  purpose  of  the  agricultural  syndicate  was  to  study 
and  defend  the  economic  and  other  interests  of  the 
farmers.  One  of  the  first  undertakings  was  the  purchase 
on  a  large  scale  of  fertilizers,  thus  giving  the  small 
farmer  the  advantages  of  reduced  prices,  guaranteed 
quality,  and  low  freight  charges  upon  this  important 
commodity.  The  scope  of  these  syndicates  was  ex- 
tended later  to  include  large  purchases  of  selected  seed, 


64  BOTANY 

well  bred  farm  animals,  agricultural  machinery,  and 
insecticides.  This  not  only  resulted  in  economy  from 
wholesale  buying  and  shipping,  but  had  a  beneficial 
educational  effect  in  the  introduction  of  improved  seed, 
better  cattle,  tools,  and  methods.  Later,  attention 
was  directed  to  conditions  of  marketing,  and  many 
syndicates  collected  and  graded  the  crops  of  their  mem- 
bers, marketing  them  to  much  greater  advantage  and 
gaining  the  further  advantage  of  low  freight  charges 
upon  car-load  shipments. 

The  syndicates  have  proved  great  social  factors  in 
bringing  together,  upon  an  entirely  equal  footing,  pro- 
prietor, tenant,  and  laborer,  under  the  motto  "All  for 
each,  and  each  for  all."  In  1887  there  were  214  syndi- 
cates; in  1805  the  number  was  1188,  including  400,000 
adherents;  and  at  the  present  time  there  are  more  than 
6000  organizations,  including  nearly  1,000,000  farmers. 

Another  feature  of  agriculture  in  France  is  the  farm 
loan  system,  which  created  a  system  of  credit  for  farmers 
somewhat  different  from  commercial  credit.  Mutual 
farm  loan  companies  have  been  established  by  members  of 
the  farmers'  syndicates.  These  loan  companies  were  made 
possible  by  advances  from  the  State,  through  the  Bank  of 
France.  In  1910  there  existed  98  central  companies  and 
3000  local  companies,  comprising  152,000  members;  and 
the  plan   has   proved   to   be   extremely   successful. 

Before  1898  no  special  encouragement  was  given  to 
agriculture  by  mutual  insurance  societies;  then  laws 
were  passed  authorizing  insurance  societies  to  benefit 
by  the  law  in  reference  to  rural  syndicates,  and  in  191 2 
there  were  13,000  local  mutual  organizations  insuring 
against  loss  by  death  of  cattle  or  by  fire.  A  series  of 
guarantees  is  provided,  extending  from  the  local  societies, 
through  central  companies,  to  ''The  Central  Trust  of 
the  Syndicate  of  Farmers  of  France." 


AGRICULTURE  65 

The  whole  syndicate  movement  in  France  has  been 
a  happy  means  of  grouping  all  the  vital  forces  of  agri- 
culture into  a  common  and  democratic  movement.  In 
consequence,  the  condition  of  the  rural  population  has 
been  immensely  improved,  both  in  spirit  and  in  product. 

The  standing  of  agriculture  in  France  was  improved 
in  1 88 1  by  the  appointment  of  a  Minister  of  Agriculture. 
Before  that  time  the  interests  of  agriculture  were  en- 
trusted successively  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  of 
Commerce,  and  of  Public  Works.  The  Minister  of 
Agriculture  has,  among  his  other  duties,  charge  of  the 
supervision  of  agricultural  education,  cooperation,  and 
improvements;  of  horse-breeding  and  veterinary  educa- 
tion; of  suppressing  frauds  in  agricultural  products. 
The  improvements  under  the  regime  of  ministers  of 
agriculture  have  been  marked.  Among  the  means 
adopted  for  encouraging  agriculture  may  be  cited  the 
organization  of  central  and  local  fairs,  awarding  prizes 
for  crops,  investigations  of  the  suitability  of  farm  ma- 
chinery, encouragement  of  the  industrial  use  of  denatured 
alcohol,  and  the  collection  and  publication  of  annual 
statistics  of  farm  products. 

The  forestry  school  of  Nancy,  founded  in  1824,  became 
more  truly  a  scientific  institution  when  in  1888  its  stu- 
dents were  required  to  present  diplomas  from  the  In- 
stitut  National  Agronomique  for  their  matriculation. 
Other  schools  for  advanced  and  secondary  work  in 
forestry  were  also  established.  The  Forest  Service  ad- 
ministered the  State  forests,  and  at  the  same  time  had 
charge  of  projects  for  the  reforestation  of  mountains 
and  the  conservation  of  woodlands.  Since  1880  the 
State  forests  have  been  increased  22  per  cent.,  and  each 
year  7000  hectares  are  reforested.  The  rural  hydraulic 
service  has  charge  of  drainage  and  irrigation  projects  and 
the  flood   control   of   streams.     The   development   and 


66  BOTANY 

utilization  of  the  water-power  of  the  wooded  mountains 
through  easily  transportable  electric  power  has  received 
attention,  and  as  a  result  many  thousands  of  horse- 
power are  available  from  the  French  Alps.  Recently 
efforts  have  been  made  to  utilize  some  of  this  power 
in  promoting  rural  industries. 

The  remarkably  effective  organization  of  the  agri- 
cultural interests  of  France  deserves  the  careful  study  of 
all  students  of  agriculture  in  this  country. 


Chemistry 


Chemistry 


There  was  a  time,  thanks  chiefly  to  the  genius  of 
Lavoisier,  when  chemistry  was  in  truth  a  "French 
science."  Now  that  it  has  diffused  from  France  over  the 
whole  world  and  become  international,  the  labors  of 
that  epoch  remain  as  an  inspiration  to  chemists  of  every 
nation.  There  is  hardly  a  single  tendency  of  the  science 
which  is  not  founded  upon  the  researches  of  the  French. 

From  the  time  of  Lavoisier,  the  development  of 
French  chemistry  was  rapid  and  broad,  because  founded 
upon  measurement  and  established  in  a  very  favorable 
environment.  Berthollet,  Gay-Lussac,  and  Thenard, 
at  the  beginning  of  last  century;  later  Chevreul,  Dumas, 
Laurent  and  Gerhardt,  WtJRTZ,  Sainte-Claire 
Deville,  and  Berthelot,  together  with  Ampere  and 
Pasteur  (two  great  names  better  known  in  other  fields), 
contributed  a  large  part  of  the  principles,  the  theories, 
and  the  facts  upon  which  the  modern  science  rests. 
More  recently  Berthelot  (the  undisputed  head  of  French 
chemistry,  and  perhaps  the  most  versatile  of  modern 
chemists),  Moissan,  Becquerel,  Curie,  and  others 
still  alive,  have  worthily  continued  the  great  national 
tradition. 

Dalton's  rudimentary  atomic  theory  required  the  prin- 
ciple of  Lavoisier  as  its  necessary  foundation.  To  its 
development,  Gay-Lussac  contributed  the  law  of 
volumes  and  a  study  of  the  radical  of  cyanogen,  Ampere 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  W.  D.  Bancroft,  Cornell  University; 
F.  B.  Dains,  University  of  Kansas;  L.  J.  Henderson,  Harvard 
University. —  Ed.] 

69 


70  CHEMISTRY 

an  independent  formulation  of  the  hypothesis  of  Avo- 
gadro,  Dumas  the  idea  of  substitution,  Laurent  and 
Gerhardt  the  conception  of  types,  Pasteur  the  beau- 
tiful and  subtle  theory  of  molecular  asymmetry,  Le  Bel 
and  GuYE  the  fundamentals  of  stereochemistry.  To 
the  development  of  organic  chemistry,  which  served  at 
every  later  stage  as  the  support  of  the  growing  atomic 
theory,  Chevreul  contributed  the  explanation  of  the 
constitution  of  the  fats;  Dumas,  Raoult,  Guye, 
WiJRTZ,  St.-Gilles,  and  Berthelot,  a  great  variety  of 
important  discoveries.  Not  less  do  inorganic  chemistry 
(through  the  labors  of  a  large  number  of  investigators), 
crystallography  (through  the  researches  of  Rome  de 
L'IsLE  and  HD^ijy),  and  physical  chemistry  (through 
those  of  Berthollet  and  Gay-Lussac),  take  their 
origin  in  France.  Turning  to  another  field,  the  begin- 
nings of  the  science  of  metabohsm  are  to  be  found  in 
the  researches  of  Lavoisier  and  Laplace,  while  the 
labors  of  Pasteur  have  revolutionized  chemical  biology 
and  created  chemical  pathology.  The  early  develop- 
ment of  agricultural  chemistry  is  illustrated  by  the 
work  of  BoussiNGAULT.  And  lastly  the  history  of 
chemistry  has  profited  by  many  important  investigations 
of  Berthelot  and  Duhem. 

University  instruction  and  research  in  France  at  the 
present  time  may  be  summarized  by  mentioning  the 
best-known  workers: 

Instruction  at  Paris.  I.  At  the  Sorhonne  (faculty 
of  sciences):  Mme.  Curie,  professor  of  physics,  the 
co-discoverer  (with  her  husband,  who  died  in  1906)  of 
radium,  the  discoverer  of  polonium,  and  the  author  of  a 
series  of  investigations  in  the  important  field  which 
her  own  labors,  extending  Henri  Becquerel's  discovery 
of  the  radio-activity  of  uranium,  have  opened  to  science; 


ANTOINE  LAURENT  LAVOISIER  (i  743-1 794) 

CLAUDE  LOUIS  BERTHOLLET  (1748-1822) 

(From  a  painting  in  the  Sorbonne) 


CHEMISTRY 


CHEMISTRY  71 

Mme.  Curie  is  a  Nobel  Laureate  and  (with  P.  Curie) 
the  author  of  a  work  ^'Traite  de  radioactivite"  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1 9 10);  Le  Chatelier,  professor  of  chemistry, 
a  physical  chemist  of  great  eminence  and  versatihty, 
author  of  researches  on  chemical  thermodynamics, 
on  pyrometry,  the  equilibria  of  alloys,  and  the  micros- 
copy of  alloys;  he  has  published  "Recherches  experi- 
mentales  et  theoriques  sur  les  equilibres  chimiques," 
(Paris,  1880),  "Introduction  a  I'etude  de  la  metallurgie," 
(Paris,  1912),  "Legons  sur  le  carbone,  la  combustion,  les 
lois  chimiques"  (Paris,  1908),  and  " La  sihce  et  les  sili- 
cates"; Urbain,  professor  of  chemistry,  famous  especially 
for  his  investigations  upon  the  rare  earths,  their  separa- 
tion and  their  spectroscopy,  author  of  "Introduction  a 
I'etude  de  la  Spectrochimie,"  (Paris,  191 1);  Haller, 
professor  of  organic  chemistry,  a  specialist  in  the  investi- 
gation of  camphor  and  its  derivatives,  of  alcohol,  and  of 
reactions  of  reduction,  author  of  "Theorie  generale  des 
alcools"  (Paris,  1879),  and  "Les  recents  progres  de  la 
Chimie  organique"  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1904-1908);  G. 
Bertrand  (of  the  Institut  Pasteur),  professor  of  biol- 
ogical chemistry,  a  student  of  enzymes,  especially  the 
oxydases,  and  of  the  sugars;  Chabrie,  professor  of 
applied  chemistry;  Jean  Perrin,  professor  of  physical 
chemistry,  who  has  conducted  important  investigations 
on  the  Brownian  movement,  the  theory  of  colloids,  and 
the  molecular  kinetic  theory,  author  of  "Rayons  catho- 
diques  et  rayons  de  Roentgen"  (Paris,  1897),  "Traite 
de  Chimie  physique,  Les  principes"  (Paris,  1903),  and 
"Les  atomes"  (Paris,  191 3). 

11.  At  the  College  de  France:  Matignon,  a  physical 
chemist  whose  researches  have  been  especially  in  the 
field  of  thermochemistry,  and  of  the  rare  earths;  Jung- 
FLEiscH,  an  organic  chemist  who  has  made  important 
investigations  upon  tartaric  acid  and  certain  derivatives 


72  CHEMISTRY 

of  benzene,  (with  Berthelot)  author  of  "Traite  de  Chimie 
organique"  (4th  ed.,  3  vol.,  Paris,  1907-1908),  and 
"Lefons  sur  les  methodes  generales  de  synthese  en  chimie 
organique"  (Paris,  1864). 

III.  At  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle:  Maquenne, 
whose  researches  extend  over  the  field  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates, author  of  "Les  Sucres  et  leurs  principaux 
derives"   (Paris,   1900);  and  Arnaud. 

IV.  At  the  Ecole  Superieure  de  Pharmacie:  Behal, 
an  organic  chemist  who,  among  other  subjects,  has 
studied  unsaturated  compounds  and  creosote,  author  of 
"Traite  de  Chimie  organique"  (2  vols., Paris,  1 909-191 1, 
3d  ed.);  Gautier,  known  for  various  investigations  in 
organic  chemistry,  in  chemical  toxicology,  and  in 
hygiene,  author  of  ''Cours  de  Chimie  organique"  (Paris, 
1906,  3d  ed.),  "Ptomaines  et  leucomaines"  (Paris,  1866), 
and  "  L 'Alimentation  et  les  regimes  chez  I'homme  sain 
et  chez  les  malades"  (Paris,  1904);  D.  Berthelot, 
author  of  important  researches  on  the  theory  of  gases, 
the  determination  of  molecular  weights,  and  photo- 
chemistry; MouREU,  a  student  of  the  rare  gases  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  an  eminent  organic  chemist,  author  of 
"Notions  fondamentales  de  Chimie  organique"  (Paris, 
1902);  BouRQUELOT,  whosc  researches  upon  enzymes  are 
well-known,  author  of  "Les  Ferments  solubles"  (Paris, 
1896);    ViLLiERs;  Guimbert;  and  Lebeau. 

V.  At  the  Ecole  Municipale  de  Chimiey  Hanriot 
and  CoPAux;  at  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  Desgrez; 
at  the  Ecole  Libre  des  Hautes  Etudes  Scientifiques, 
Hamonet. 

There  are  also  at  Paris,  chiefly  at  the  Institut  Pas- 
teur, a  number  of  others,  including  Bertrand,  Roux, 
Mesnil,  Delezenne,  Chamberland,  Martin,  Maze, 
MouTON,  J.  DucLAUx,  wliose  investigations  fall  in  the 
borderland  of    chemistry,    physiology,    pathology,   and 


CHEMISTRY  73 

general  biology.  Also  in  Paris,  but  not  connected  with 
the  ministry  of  public  instruction,  are  a  considerable 
number  of  other  chemists  of  distinction,  including 
Le  Bel,  G.  Lemoine,  Schloesing,  Schloesing  fils, 
and  MuNTZ. 

In  1914-15  the  courses  in  chemistry  given  in  Paris 
were  as  follows: 

I.  Faculty  of  Sciences.  General  Physics:  Mme. 
Curie,  "Ions  in  Gases  and  the  Phenomena  of  Radio- 
activity." General  Chemistry:  Le  Chatelier,  "The 
Properties  of  the  Metals  and  the  General  Laws  of  Chem- 
istry." Chemistry:  Urbain,  "Thermochemistry  and 
the  Energetics  of  Chemical  Reactions."  Organic 
Chemistry:  Haller,  "The  Aromatic  Series."  Physical 
Chemistry:  Perrin,  "General  Physical  Chemistry." 
Applied  Chemistry:  Chabrie,  " Fuels,  Precious  Metals 
and  the  Manufacture  of  Alcohol."  Biological  Chemistry: 
Bertrand,  "The  Chemical  Composition  of  Living 
Organisms." 

In  addition  to  these  courses,  numerous  conferences 
were  held,  as  follows:  Ouvrard,  "Technology;" 
GuiCHARD,  "The  Study  of  Original  Memoirs  in  General 
Chemistry,  and  the  Metalloids  and  Metals;"  V.  Auger, 
"Inorganic  Chemistry;"  Blaise,  "Organic  Chemistry, 
General  Principles  and  Study  of  the  Aliphatic  Series;" 
Fernbach,  "Microbes  in  the  Fermentation  Industry, 
and  Alcoholic  Fermentation." 

II.  Institut  de  Chimie  Appliquee.  In  this  institute, 
under  the  direction  of  Chabrle,  are  given  certain  courses 
supplementary  to  those  of  the  faculty  of  sciences,  in- 
cluding elementary  qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis 
by  Binet  du  Jassonnelx,  qualitative  organic  analysis 
and  organic  preparations  by  Freundler,  analysis  and 
preparation  of  industrial  products  by  Marquis,  and 
physical    chemistry    and    electrochemistry    by    Marie. 


74  CHEMISTRY 

Students,  including  foreigners,  over  eighteen  years  of  age 
are  admitted  to  this  school  by  examination. 

III.  At  the  FacuUe  de  Medecine,  there  are  courses 
on  chemistry  applied  to  medicine,  conducted  by  Desgrez 
and  Labbe,  together  with  other  courses  in  physiology, 
medical  physics,  hygiene,  pharmacology,  pathology, 
etc. 

IV.  At  the  Ecole  Superieure  de  Pharmacie  there  are 
the  following  courses:  Villiers,  qualitative  and  quanti- 
tative analysis;  Gautier,  inorganic  chemistry;  Grimbert, 
biological  chemistry;  Behal,  organic  chemistry;  Lebeau, 
toxicology;  Bourquelot,  pharmacy;  Moureu,  chemical 
pharmacy. 

V.  At  the  Institut  Pasteur  there  is  a  section  of  biol- 
ogical chemistry,  comprising  a  laboratory  of  biological 
chemistry  (affiliated  with  the  faculty  of  sciences),  the 
service  of  fermentations,  a  laboratory  of  agricultural 
chemistry,  and  a  laboratory  for  instruction  in  biological 
chemistry.  This  section  of  the  Institute  gives  theoretical 
and  practical  instruction  in  the  several  branches  of  the 
subject;  to  this  instruction  properly  qualified  foreigners 
are  admitted. 

VI.  There  are  also  courses  on  chemistry  and  allied 
subjects  at  the  College  de  France,  at  the  Museum  d^His- 
toire  Naturelle,  and  in  various  other  places. 

VII.  The  Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes  includes 
a  number  of  chemical  laboratories.  Qualified  students 
are  admitted  as  members  of  this  school,  without  regard 
to  age  or  nationality  or  formal  qualification,  into  its 
laboratories,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  laboratory  chief. 
This  arrangement  makes  free  the  access  to  nearly  all 
the  advanced  laboratories  of  Paris. 

Laboratories  in  the  following  subjects  are  associated 
with  this  school:  Inorganic  chemistry  at  the  Sorbonne 
(Le  Chatelier,  director) ;  Chemistry,  at  the  Ecole  Normale 


CHEMISTRY  75 

(Lespieau,  director);  Inorganic  Chemistry,  at  the  Col- 
lege de  France  (Matignon,  director);  Biological  Chemis- 
try, at  the  Institut  Pasteur  (Roux,  director);  Organic 
Chemistry,  at  the  College  de  France  (Jungfleisch, 
director);  Organic  Chemistry,  at  the  Sorbonne  (Haller, 
director);  Pathological  Chemistry,  at  the  College  de 
France  (Goupil,  director). 

VIII.  The  Institute  of  Hydrology  and  Climatology 
includes  the  following  laboratories,  among  others:  Water 
Analysis,  at  the  Sorbonne  (Urbain,  director);  Physical 
Chemistry,  at  the  ficole  Superieure  de  Pharmacie 
(Moureu,  director). 

IX.  There  are  also  chemical  laboratories  in  ,the 
various  institutes  and  schools  of  agriculture,  horticulture, 
veterinary  medicine,  etc.,  which  abound  in  the  capital 
and  its  environs,  as  well  as  at  the  £cole  Municipale  de 
Chimie. 

Provincial  Universities.  Opportunities  for  study  and 
research  in  chemistry  at  the  other  universities  are  far  less 
varied  than  at  Paris,  and  in  the  different  institutions 
are  decidedly  unequal.  In  some  instances,  as  at  Nancy, 
every  department  of  the  science  is  represented,  and  the 
student  has  every  necessary  opportunity  at  his  disposal. 
But  in  certain  smaller  institutions  each  faculty  has  but 
a  single  chair  of  chemistry.  The  subject  is,  however, 
always  represented  in  both  the  faculty  of  sciences  and 
the  faculty  (or  "£cole  preparatoire ")  of  medicine;  it  is 
also  represented  in  certain  "Facultes  libres;"  and  there 
are,  of  course,  in  connection  with  the  schools  of  medicine, 
various  chairs  which  are  chiefly  concerned  with  one  or 
another  aspect  of  the  more  fundamental  science.  In 
some  instances,  there  are  also  institutes  of  chemistry 
and  applied  chemistry  affiliated  with  the  university 
faculties.  It  should  be  distinctly  understood  that  some 
of  the  best  chemists  in  France  are  to  be  found  in  the 


76  CHEMISTRY 

provinces.     The    following    list    includes    most    of    the 
principal  chemists  of  the  several  provincial  universities: 

Besanqon.  Faculty  of  sciences:  L.  Boutroux,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry;  Tissier,  professor  of  applied  chem- 
istry. 

Bordeaux.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Gayon,  professor  of 
chemistry;  Vezes,  professor  of  inorganic  chemistry  and 
director  of  a  technical  laboratory;  Vigouroux,  known 
for  his  researches  on  alloys;  M.  Dubourg,  adjunct 
professor  of  agricultural  chemistry  and  head  of  the 
school  of  apphed  chemistry.  Faculty  of  medicine  and 
pharmacy:  Blarez,  professor  of  chemistry;  Deniges, 
professor  of  biological  chemistry,  known  for  his  investi- 
gation of  a  number  of  interesting  reactions. 

Caen.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Besson,  professor  of 
chemistry.  School  of  medicine:  Chretien,  professor 
of  chemistry. 

Clermont.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Chavastelon,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry.  School  of  medicine:  Huguet,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry. 

Dijon.  Faculty  of  sciences  and  School  of  medicine: 
Pigeon,  professor  of  chemistry.  Faculty  of  sciences: 
Metzner,  adjunct  professor  of  industrial  and  agricultural 
chemistry. 

Grenoble.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Recoura,  professor 
of  chemistry,  known  for  his  researches  in  inorganic 
chemistry;  Flusin,  professor  of  electrochemistry  and 
electrometallurgy,  who  is  also  associated  with  the 
Institut  Electrotechnique. 

Lille.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Lemoult,  professor  of 
general  chemistry;  Buisine,  professor  of  industrial  and 
agricultural  chemistry  and  director  of  the  institute  of 
chemistry.  Among  the  other  chemists  in  this  faculty 
may  be  mentioned:  Faculty  of  medicine:  Lamb  ling, 
professor  of  organic  chemistry;   Lescceur,  professor  of 


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CHEMISTRY  77 

inorganic  chemistry  and  toxicology.  There  are  also  at 
Lille  chairs  of  chemistry  in  the  "Facultes  libres"  of 
medicine  and  sciences. 

Lyon.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Barbier,  professor  of 
chemistry,  an  eminent  organic  chemist,  well  known  for 
his  numerous  researches  in  the  determination  of  consti- 
tution and  on  reduction;  Vignon,  professor  of  industrial 
and  agricultural  chemistry;  and  several  others.  Faculty 
of  medicine:  Hugounenq,  professor  of  medical  chem- 
istry, known  for  his  spectroscopical  work;  Morel, 
professor  of  organic  chemistry;  and  several  others. 

Marseille.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Perdrdc,  professor 
of  general  chemistry;  Rivals,  professor  of  industrial 
chemistry.  School  of  medicine:  Moitessier,  professor 
of  medical  chemistry. 

Montpellier.  Faculty  of  sciences :  de  Forcrand,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  known  for  his  investigation  upon 
heterogeneous  equiHbrium,  thermochemistry,  and 
thermodynamics;  Oechsner  de  Coninck,  professor  of 
chemistry,  and  likewise  a  well-known  investigator;  in 
this  faculty  there  are  also  several  other  chemists.  Faculty 
of  medicine:  Ville,  professor  of  medical  chemistry. 

Nancy.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Muller,  professor  of 
physical  chemistry;  Petit,  professor  of  agricultural 
chemistry;  Wahl,  professor  of  industrial  chemistry; 
GuNTZ,  professor  of  inorganic  chemistry  and  director 
of  the  Institut  Chimique,  known  for  his  researches  on 
lithium  and  barium;  Grignard,  professor  of  organic 
chemistry,  winner  of  the  Nobel  prize  for  his  researches 
upon  organomagnesium  compounds,  author  of  "Sur  les 
combinations  organomagnesiennes  mixtes  et  leurs 
appHcations"  (Lyon,  1901);  Minguin,  professor  of 
chemistry;  Guyot,  professor  of  the  chemistry  of  dyeing 
and  printing.  Faculty  of  medicine:  Garnier,  professor 
of  medical  chemistry. 


78  CHEMISTRY 

Poitiers.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Roux  and  Bodroux, 
professors  of  chemistry.  School  of  medicine:  Sauvage, 
professor  of  chemistry. 

Rennes.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Bouzat,  professor  of 
chemistry.  School  of  medicine:  Lenormand  and 
Laurent,  professors  of  chemistry. 

Toulouse.  Faculty  of  sciences:  Paul  Sabatier,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  and  director  of  the  institute  of 
chemistry,  whose  researches  upon  catalytic  organic 
reductions  have  been  awarded  the  Nobel  prize,  author 
of  "La  Catalyse  en  Chimie  organique"  (Paris,  1913); 
GiRAN,  professor  of  chemistry;  Fab  re,  professor  of  agri- 
cultural and  industrial  chemistry  and  director  of  the 
Station  Agronomique.  Faculty  of  medicine:  Aloy, 
professor  of  chemistry.  At  the  Faculte  libre  of  Toulouse, 
I'abbe  Senderens,  the  collaborator  with  Sabatier  in 
his  important  researches,  is  professor  of  chemistry. 


Criminology 


Criminology 

Ever  since  the  famous  reports  of  La  Rochefoucauld- 
LiANCOURT  to  the  National  Assembly  in  1790  and  1791, 
France  has  been  a  center  of  lively  interest  in  the  subject 
of  criminalistics.  His  studies  of  mendicity,  reforma- 
tories, poor  relief,  and  the  Philadelphia  prison  system, 
have  been  guide-posts  for  a  century.  But  even  before 
that,  Voltaire  had  popularized  the  ideas  of  Beccaria. 
The  tradition  was  carried  on  in  the  nineteenth  century 
by  great  sociologists  like  QuETELET,who  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  criminal  statistics;  by  great  publicists  like 
De  Tocqueville,  who  added  a  strand  to  the  bonds 
between  France  and  America  by  his  notable  report  on 
the  penitentiary  system  in  the  United  States  and  its 
application  in  France  (1833);  by  great  physiologists  like 
Lauvergne,  who  anticipated  some  of  Lombroso's 
theories;  by  great  men  of  letters  like  Lamartine,  who 
thought  it  no  condescension  to  offer  to  the  cause  of 
neglected  childhood  some  of  his  most  masterly  eloquence; 
and  by  great  medical  men  like  Morel  and  Despine, 
who  blazed  new  paths  in  criminal  psychiatry.  The 
whole  nineteenth  century  was  a  period  of  free  trade 
between  these  two  republics  in  the  field  of  charities  and 
correction.  France  borrowed  ideas  of  prison  adminis- 
tration. America  in  return  imported  both  ideas  and  men 
for  developing  our  system  of  caring  for  the  blind,  deaf- 
mutes,    feeble-minded,    and    insane.     Recently    France 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  C.  A.  Ellwood,  University  of  Missouri; 
Maurice  Parmelee,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York;  A.  J.  Todd, 
University  of  Minnesota. —  Ed.] 

81 


82  CRIMINOLOGY 

once  more  exemplified  the  same  principle  by  taking 
over  from  us  the  Juvenile  Court.  Another  illustration 
may  be  found  in  the  proposal  by  Tarde  to  substitute 
our  system  of  electrocution  for  the  guillotine  as  the 
best  method  of  capital  punishment.  Finally,  it  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  the  American  system  of  the  inde- 
terminate sentence  and  parole  is  to  no  small  degree 
the  child  of  French  inspiration.  For  it  appears  that 
the  first  public  proclamation  of  the  principle  of  con- 
ditional liberation  of  prisoners  came  through  a  remarkable 
address  of  Bonneville  de  Marsangy  at  Rheims  in 
1846;  this  address  (translated  and  pubhshed  by  F.  H. 
Wines  in  1866)  formed  one  of  the  foundation  stones  of 
our  Elmira  Reformatory  System. 

France,  then,  offers  two  fields  for  the  student  of  crim- 
inahstics:   penal  administration  and  criminology  proper. 

The  French  School  of  Criminology.  The  tendency  of 
the  French  criminologists  has  been  to  lay  special  em- 
phasis upon  the  influence  of  the  enviromnent  in  the 
causation  of  crime.  Consequently,  the  so-called  "French 
School"  of  criminology  has  frequently  been  called  the 
"school  of  the  environment."  This  tendency  has  been 
due  in  part  to  an  attempt  to  oppose  and  counteract  the 
tendency  of  the  Italian  criminologists  to  put  excessive 
emphasis  upon  the  influence  of  pathological  and  abnormal 
anatomical  and  physiological  traits  in  the  causation  of 
crime.  It  has  also  been  due  to  the  important  place 
given  in  France  to  the  study  of  law,  politics,  and  the 
social  sciences. 

At  the  same  time  the  notable  achievements  of  the 
French  in  physiology,  psychology,  and  anthropology 
have  had  their  influence  upon  the  development  of  crim- 
inology in  that  country.  A  number  of  careful  studies 
have  been  made  of  the  physical  traits  of  criminals,  and 


GABRIEL  TARDE  (1843-1904) 
(From  the  monument  by  Injalbert) 


CRIMINOLOGY 


CRIMINOLOGY  83 

much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  psychiatric  aspect 
of  crime.  ■  Legal  medicine  has  been  developed  in  France 
perhaps  further  than  in  any  other  country. 

Criminologists.  Two  French  criminologists  deserve 
special  mention.  One  of  them  is  the  sociologist,  the  late 
Gabriel  Tarde,  who  was  at  first  a  provincial  magistrate, 
later  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  and  then  professor 
at  the  College  de  France  in  Paris.  In  all  of  his  crimino- 
logical writings  his  principal  effort  was  to  analyze  the 
influence  of  the  social  factors  in  the  causation  of  crime. 
Among  his  books  are  "La  philosophic  penale"  (translated 
into  English),  "La  criminalite  comparee,"  "Etudes 
penales  et  sociales,"  "Les  transformations  du  droit," 
"Les  transformations  du  pouvoir." 

The  other  is  Alexandre  Lacassagne,  professor  of  legal 
medicine  at  the  University  of  Lyon,  and  founder  and 
editor  of  the  leading  criminological  journal  in  France 
(and  perhaps  in  the  world),  the  "Archives  d 'Anthropologic 
criminelle,  de  Medecine  legale,  et  de  Psychologic  nor- 
male  et  pathologique."  Lacassagne  has,  in  a  sense,  been 
the  official  spokesman  of  the  French  school  of  crim- 
inology. He  is  the  leader  of  a  group  of  criminologists 
who  have  been  very  active  in  research  work  and  in 
criminological  publication.  He  has  written  volumin- 
ously on  the  statistical  and  other  social  aspects  of 
crime,  while  his  medico-legal  treatises  make  him  one 
of  the  leading  authorities  in  the  world  on  the  subject  of 
legal  medicine. 

A.  CoRRE  has  published  several  valuable  books  con- 
taining both  general  and  specialized  studies  of  the  causes 
of  crime:  "Crime  et  suicide,"  "Les  criminels,"  "L'eth- 
nographie  criminelle"  (with  P.  Aubry),  "Documents  de 
criminologie  retrospective."  E.  Laurent  has  made 
special  studies  on  prisons,  and  has  also  written  about 


84  CRIMINOLOGY 

the  general  problems  of  criminology:  "Les  habitues  des 
prisons  de  Paris,"  "Le  criminel,"  "L'anthropologie 
criminelle  et  les  nouvelles  theories  du  crime."  C.  Per- 
kier has  made  special  studies  on  prisons :  "Lescriminels," 
"  Emprisonnement  et  criminaHte."  H.  Joly  has  pub- 
lished numerous  works  containing  many  statistical  data: 
"Le  crime,"  "La  France  criminelle,"  "L'enfance  cou- 
pable,"  "La  Belgique  criminelle,"  "Problemes  de  science 
criminelle."  L.  Proal,  a  magistrate,  has  written  vo- 
luminously and  graphically:  "Le  crime  et  la  peine," 
"La  criminaHte  politique,"  "Le  crime  et  le  suicide 
passionnels."  J.  Maxwell,  a  public  prosecutor,  has 
written  scholarly  works  on  the  nature  of  crime:  "Le 
crime  et  la  societe,"  "Le  concept  social  du  crime." 
G.  ViDAL  has  published  voluminous  compilations  of 
criminal  law  and  of  the  data  of  modern  criminological 
science:  "Principes  fondamentaux  de  la  penalite  dans 
les  systemes  les  plus  modernes,"  "Cours  de  droit  criminel 
et  de  science  penitentiaire."  J.  Dallemagne  has  pre- 
pared several  useful  little  handbooks  of  the  different 
aspects  of  criminology:  "Les  theories  de  la  criminaHte," 
"Les  stigmates  anatomiques  de  la  criminaHte,"  "Les 
stigmates  biologiques  et  sociologiques  de  la  criminaHte." 

Criminology  in  the  Universities.  In  all  of  the  law 
schools  are  given  courses  on  criminal  law  and  procedure. 
In  the  medical  schools  of  the  universities  of  Paris,  Bor- 
deaux, Lille,  Lyon,  MontpeUier,  Nancy,  and  Toulouse, 
are  given  courses  on  legal  medicine.  The  two  universi- 
ties at  which  the  facilities  for  studying  criminology  are 
sufficiently  extensive  to  require  special  mention  are 
these  of  Paris  and  Lyon. 

At  the  University  of  Paris,  in  the  law  school  are  given 
courses  on  criminal  law  and  penology  by  Gar^on  and 
Le  Poittevin.     There  is  a  special  seminary  room  for 


CRIMIN'OLOCY 


CRIMINOLOGY  85 

students  of  criminology.  A  diploma  is  given  for  special 
studies  in  penal  science  ("Certificat  de  science  penale"). 
In  the  medical  school  are  given  courses  in  legal  medicine 
by  Thoinot  and  Ribierre.  There  is  a  laboratory  and 
an  institute  of  legal  medicine.  To  those  who  qualify 
is  given  the  diploma  of  medico-legal  expert  (medecin 
legiste).  In  addition  to  these  medical  and  legal  courses 
should  be  noted  the  courses  of  Durkheim,  which  cor- 
relate closely  criminalistics  with  other  social  phenomena. 
In  addition  to  the  courses  in  the  University,  courses  of 
interest  to  students  of  criminology  are  frequently  given 
in  various  other  educational  institutions  in  Paris.  Among 
these  are  the  College  de  France,  Ecole  d 'Anthropologic, 
Institut  general  Psychologique,  Ecole  libre  des  Sciences 
Politiques,  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  Sociales,  College 
libre  des  Sciences  Sociales. 

At  the  University  of  Lyon,  where  Lacassagne  is  the 
chief  figure,  special  courses  in  penology  are  given  in  the 
law  school.  Courses  on  legal  medicine  are  given  in  the 
medical  school,  and  there  is  a  celebrated  medico-legal 
laboratory. 

In  Paris  an  extensive  criminological  literature  is  to 
be  fpund  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  and  in  the  library 
of  the  Law  School.  The  Musee  Social  also  affords  some 
facilities  in  this  line.  At  the  Palais  de  Justice,  where 
Bertillon  worked  out  his  famous  anthropometric  system 
of  identification,  are  the  identification  bureau  and  the 
school  for  teaching  identification  methods  to  the  police. 
The  Societe  Generale  des  Prisons  holds  frequent  meetings 
of  interest  to  students  of  criminology.  There  are  several 
prisons  in  or  near  Paris  illustrating  different  types  of 
prisons,  among  them  the  Prison  de  la  Sante,  La  Petite 
Roquette,  etc. 

There  are  many  other  penal  institutions  in  France 
worthy  of  inspection;  perhaps  the  most  famous  of  these 


86  CRIMINOLOGY 

is  the  Colonie  de  Mettray,  a  pioneer  in  juvenile  reforma- 
tories. 

At  the  University  of  Lyon  are  a  museum  of  legal 
medicine  and  a  museum  of  criminal  anthropology. 

Penal  Administration.  The  large  number  of  "patro- 
nages, "particularly  for  the  care  and  protection  of  neglected 
and  dehnquent  children  in  Paris,  Lyon,  Le  Havre,  and 
other  large  cities,  offer  opportunity  for  research  into 
both  causative  and  preventive  factors  in  crime.  Nor 
should  the  "Tribunaux  pour  enfants  et  adolescents" 
be  overlooked.  So  important  has  this  juvenile  court 
movement  become  that  a  special  journal,  the  "Revue 
des  Tribunaux  pour  Enfants,"  was  founded  in  19 13.  Its 
collaborators  include  Senator  Berenger  (the  great  philan- 
thropist who  fathered  the  probation  system  of  1891),  Pro- 
fessors CucHE  of  Grenoble,  Gar^on  and  Le  Poittevin  of 
Paris,  Garraxjd  of  Lyon,  and  such  distinguished  advocates 
and  judges  as  Albanel,  Flory,  Lemercier,  Prevost, 
Prudhomme,  Robert,  Rollet,  Teutsch,  and  Vidal- 
Naquet.  The  famous  psychological  clinic  founded  by 
BiNET  at  the  University  of  Paris  furnishes  opportunities 
for  co-ordinating  this  study  of  juvenile  delinquency;  the 
-so-called  "Binet-Simon  scale"  is  the  basis  for  most  of 
the  psychopathic  testing  employed  in  American  courts 
and  institutions. 

Finally,  the  admirable  statistical  service  of  both 
national  and  municipal  bureaus  offers  to  the  student 
unusual  opportunities  for  access  to  bodies  of  statistical 
fact  and  also  for  training  in  statistical  method.  The 
French  official  "Compte  general  de  I'administration  de 
la  justice,"  beginning  in  1826,  is  the  longest  systematic 
record  available  for  any  country  in  the  world. 


Education 


Education 


Educational  theorists  have  never  been  lacking  in  France, 
as  names  Hke  Rabelais,  Montaigne,  and  Rousseau 
easily  indicate.  In  French  educational  history  during 
the  nineteenth  century,  names  like  Guizot,  Duruy, 
Ferry,  Pecaut,  Greard,  Buisson,  Compayre,  and 
LiARD,  come  most  readily  to  mind.  Of  these,  all  save 
Pecaut  and  Compayre  will  go  down  in  history  as  or- 
ganizers or  administrators.  Pecaut,  of  sweet  spirit, 
is  the  only  one  who  lives  pre-eminently  as  a  teacher. 
Compayre  enjoys  relatively  greater  renown  outside 
France  than  in  his  native  country.  Buisson,  encyclo- 
pedist, administrator,  professor  in  the  University  of 
Paris,  and  for  many  years  an  active  and  influential  mem- 
ber of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  still  lives  in  Paris. 
Buisson  worked  hand  and  glove  with  Jules  Ferry  in 
effecting  the  great  reforms  of  the  early'  '8o's  which 
veritably  made  the  present  system  of  primary  educa- 
tion in  France.  Liard,  of  eloquent  speech  and  true 
pedagogical  insight,  the  worthy  successor  of  Greard  as 
vice-rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  has  long  wielded 
a  powerful  influence  in  university  and  secondary  circles 
at  the  French  capital. 

DuPANLOup,  QuiNET  and  Michelet,  Jules  Simon 
and  Michel  Breal,  Marion,  Lavisse,  Fouillee,  Guyau 
and  Perez,  Madame  Pape-Carpentier  and  Madame 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  John  Dewey,  Columbia  University; 
Frederic  E.  Farrington,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education;  Paul  H. 
Hanus,  Harvard  University;  Charles  H.  Judd,  University  of 
Chicago.] 

89 


90  EDUCATION 

Kergomard,  Binet  and  Ribot  (these  latter  two,  psy- 
chologists), have  all  made  valuable  contributions  to  the 
development  of  educational  thought. 

But  during  the  past  hundred  years  French  educators 
have  been  nothing  if  not  practical.  Teacher-training 
has  loomed  large  in  French  educational  hfe.  In  support 
therefor  one  has  only  to  cite  the  centenary  of  her  higher 
normal  school,  celebrated  over  two  decades  ago,  and  the 
hundred  and  sixty  or  more  primary  normal  schools,  scat- 
tered through  the  various  departments,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  girls'  higher  normal  schools,  two  higher  primary 
normal  schools,  as  well  as  other  teacher-training  institu- 
tions— all  included  within  an  area  less  than  three-quarters 
the  size  of  Texas. 

In  all  these  training  schools,  three  aims  have  been 
constantly  kept  to  the  fore:  The  student  should  know 
his  subject  thoroughly;  he  should  know  more  than  his 
subject;  and  he  should  know  how  to  teach  his  subject. 
It  may  fairly  be  asserted  that  during  the  past  generation 
no  country  in  the  world  has  succeeded  better  than  France 
in  accomplishing  this  triple  purpose  in  teacher-prepara- 
tion. 

Curricula,  courses  of  study,  methods  of  instruction 
and  organization,  textbooks,  and  innumerable  other 
details  are  regulated  by  a  central  authority,  usually  at 
Paris  itself,  after  carefully  culling  the  best  ideas  from 
the  educational  leaders  of  the  country.  A  system  or- 
ganized on  such  a  basis  may  make  less  striking  innova- 
tions in  educational  procedure,  and  may  reduce  the 
opportunities  for  experimentation  and  scientific  work, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  conduces  to  more  consistent 
educational  progress.  In  fact,  long  before  the  term 
gained  general  acceptance,  France  was  following  a  kind 
of  pedagogical  pragmatism  in  the  conduct  of  its  edu- 
cational affairs.     In  a  word,  France  has  little  to  offer 


FERDINAND   BUISSON    (1841-) 


EDUCATION  91 

the  foreign  student  in  the  way  of  mere  formal  study  of 
educational  theory  as  a  university  subject,  much  less 
does  it  hold  out  any  inducement  to  the  mere  seeker 
after  academic  distinction. 

On  the  other  hand,  for  the  educator  of  mature  mind, 
able  to  use  his  educational  theory  as  a  tool,  capable 
of  observing,  judging,  and  evaluating  educational  or- 
ganization and  practice,  France  offers  an  almost  virgin 
field  for  study.  With  a  highly  organized  educational 
system  in  full  working  order,  with  practically  every  type 
of  educational  institution  in  successful  operation,  France 
yields  to  no  other  country  in  the  world  in  the  excellence 
of  its  individual  institutions  of  learning.  These  are 
well  worth  the  study  of  the  professional  educator,  from 
the  University  with  its  traditional  faculties,  as  well  as 
its  more  modern  adjuncts  (to  say  nothing  of  independent 
institutions  of  university  grade  like  the  College  de 
France,  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  Sociales,  the  Institut 
Oceanographique,  and  the  like),  through  its  famous  old 
lycees  and  other  types  of  secondary  schools,  its  various 
grades  of  scientific  and  technical  schools,  its  commercial, 
industrial,  and  agricultural  schools,  all  the  way  down  to 
the  modest  primary  school.  Each  type  or  each  school 
has  an  organization  and  in  many  cases  a  methodology 
of  its  own. 

In  view  of  the  practical  trend  in  French  education, 
the  absence  of  education  courses,  in  the  narrow  sense 
of  the  term,  occasions  no  surprise.  In  the  University 
of  Paris,  only  one  professor,  Durkjieim,  lectures  in  that 
field,  announcing  three  courses  under  the  general  cap- 
tion: Science  of  education  and  sociology.  One  of  these 
courses  is  in  ethics;  one  is  concerned  with  the  history  of 
.pedagogical  doctrines;  and  one  is  a  practical  course  de- 
signed to  meet  the  needs  of  candidates  for  the  master's 


92  EDUCATION 

degree.  What  may  be  called  special  method  courses, 
however,  are  very  numerous  in  the  faculty  of  letters. 
In  1914-15,  for  example,  fourteen  of  the  twenty-five 
instructors  giving  courses  in  history,  and  four  of  the 
five  giving  courses  in  geography,  announced  special 
work  for  candidates  for  the  higher  certificates  or  degrees. 
DuRKHEiM,  who  enjoys  an  international  reputation 
as  a  sociologist  through  his  work  on  "Suicide,"  was 
called  from  Bordeaux  some  years  ago  as  successor  to 
the  late  Henri  Marion. 

Some  attention  is  given  to  educational  theory  in  the 
course  of  the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure,  as  well  as  in 
several  of  the  other  teachers'  training  schools  in  the 
Academy  of  Paris,  but  admission  to  these  courses  may 
be  obtained  only  by  special  dispensation. 

Courses  in  educational  theory  are  likewise  few  in  the 
provincial  universities.  Six  ^  of  the  fifteen  other  uni- 
versities announce  courses  in  education,  viz.:  Besangon 
offers  one  course  in  psychology  apphed  to  education, 
and  another  in  practical  pedagogy;  Dijon  and  Toulouse 
give  the  work  under  "philosophy  and  pedagogy"; 
Grenoble,  Lille,  and  Lyon  use  the  caption  "science  of 
education."  What  has  been  said  of  the  general  nature 
of  the  work  at  Paris  is  likewise  true  of  that  offered  at  the 
provincial  universities. 

Despite  the  lack  of  theoretical  courses  in  education  in 
the  French  universities,  there  is  a  wide  field  for  historical 
research  which  has  scarcely  been  touched.  We  in  this 
country  know  httle  about  the  historical  development  of 
French  institutions.  Most  of  our  history  of  education 
has  come  to  us  from  Germany  by  way  of  direct  transla- 
tion of  German  treatises.     Barnard's  great  contributions 

^  Data  on  this  particular  topic  are  those  given  in  "I'Annuaire  de 
I'instruction  publique"  for  1913,  the  latest  available  information. 


EDUCATION'  93 

to  our  knowledge  in  this  field  came  from  German  sources. 
(It  is  interesting  in  passing  to  note  that  his  promised 
volume  on  French  educators  was  never  written).  Yet  the 
first  great  university  was  founded  in  Paris;  the  most 
powerful  teaching  body  the  world  has  ever  seen  was  or- 
ganized in  Paris  by  Loyola;  Ramus,  Rollin,  and  RoUand 
d'Erceville  were  all  important  men  in  the  development 
of  education  in  France,  yet  one  searches  in  vain  through 
the  index  of  the  most  comprehensive  text  in  the  history 
of  education  published  in  this  country  for  even  a  mention 
of  their  names.  Rashdall  in  his  scholarly  "Universities 
of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,"  and  Denifle  and 
Chatelain  in  their  monumental  "  Chartularium  universi- 
tatis  Parisiensis,"  have  set  the  standard  in  their  contri- 
butions to  early  university  history.  For  the  ensuing 
six  hundred  years,  save  for  accounts  of  the  more  famous 
educational  theorists,  the  whole  development  of  educa- 
tion in  France  is  well-nigh  inaccessible  in  English.  This 
offers  a  great  field  for  research. 

Paris  is  strikingly  a  city  of  libraries.  Their  number  is 
legion,  and  includes  almost  every  conceivable  subject. 
Many  of  these  libraries  contain  works  bearing  upon 
education  in  some  of  its  phases.  By  far  the  most  valu- 
able of  the  pedagogical  libraries,  and  fortunately  the 
one  most  readily  accessible  to  the  student,  is  the  Bi- 
bliotheque  de  I'Enseignement  Public,  at  the  Musee 
Pedagogique,  41  rue  Gay-Lussac.  Here  one  finds  a 
collection  of  some  75,000  volumes,  unfortunately  not  all 
catalogued  in  the  most  approved  fashion.  This,  however, 
is  one  of  the  great  educational  libraries  of  the  world,  and 
every  facility  is  afforded  for  research  work;  its  collection 
of  American  school-texts  of  the  mid-nineteenth  century 
is  surprisingly  large.  Other  libraries  may  be  consulted 
for  special  fields  of  educational  study,  notably  the  library 
of   the   Ministry   of   Commerce   and   Industry   for   all 


94  EDUCATION 

material  relating  to  technical  (i.  e.  commercial  and  in- 
dustrial) education.  The  serious  and  qualified  student 
of  educational  problems  will  find  every  door  open  and 
every  courtesy  extended  by  the  authorities  of  our  sister 
republic. 


Engineering 


Engineering- 

The  teaching  of  the  fundamental  sciences  of  mathe- 
matics, mechanics,  physics  and  chemistry,  as  well  as  the 
application  of  these  sciences  to  the  solution  of  engineer- 
ing problems,  calls  for  clear  thinking  and  for  rational 
and  logical  mental  processes.  Should  we  not  then  turn 
to  France,  the  land  of  clear  thinking  par  excellence,  for 
illuminating  and  inspiring  instruction  in  sciences,  both 
pure  and  applied?  The  French  mind,  to  which  obscurity 
is  as  abhorrent  as  vacuum  is  to  nature,  is  pecuharly 
fitted  to  grasp  and  to  teach  the  physical  laws  of  nature 
and  their  application,  and  France  has  given  to  the  world 
a  rich  galaxy  of  eminent  scientific  thinkers  and  dis- 
coverers. 

It  will  sufiice  for  our  purpose  to  name  a  few  of  the  great 
French  engineers  whose  achievements  have  made  them 
famous.  Such  are  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  the  builder 
of  the  Suez  Canal;  Eiffel,  who  conceived  and  constructed 
the  tower  that  bears  his  name;  Perronnet,  Poncelet, 
Hennebique  and  Mesnager,  civil  engineers  of  world- 
wide reputation;  Sauvage  and  Couche  in  railroad  en- 
gineering; Sadi  Carnot,  the  discoverer  of  some  of  the  most 
fundamental  laws  of  thermodynamics;  fitienne  Lenoir; 
Beau  DE  RocHAS  and  Fernand  Forest,  who  by  their 
pioneer  work  in  the  development  of  the  internal  combus- 
tion engine  prepared  the  way  for  the  automobile  and  the 

1  [Drafting  Committee:  Ira  N.  Hollis,  Worcester  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute;HENRY M.  Howe,  Columbia  University;  Alex.  C,  Humphreys, 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology;  Albert  Sauveur,  Harvard  Univer- 
sity.—  Ed.] 

97 


98  ENGINEERING 

aeroplane;  Gramme,  who  developed  the  dynamo-electric 
machine,  and  took  an  important  part  in  the  discovery  that 
dynamo  machines  are  reversible,  i.e.,  capable  of  being 
employed  as  motors ;  Baudot,  the  designer  of  a  multiplex 
system,  extensively  used;  Marcel  Deprez,  who  was  a 
pioneer  in  the  electric  transmission  of  power;  Foucault, 
who  first  discovered  the  losses  of  power  in  dynamos  due 
to  eddy  currents;  Mascart;  Joubert;  Hospitalier; 
Andre  Blondel  and  Maurice  Le  Blanc,  all  of  whom  made 
important  contributions  to  electrical  engineering  science 
and  standards;  the  illustrious  Ampere  and  Coulomb, 
who,  though  generally  classified  as  physicists,  have  power- 
fully contributed  through  their  basic  discoveries  to  the 
progress  of  apphed  electricity  ;£lieDE  Beaumont;  Combes; 
Gallon;  Haxjy;  Albert  de  Lapparent;  Haton  de  la 
Goupilliere;  de  Launay;  Daubree,  all  mining  en- 
gineers or  geologists  who  have  contributed  largely  to 
engineering  progress. 

In  metallurgy  may  be  mentioned  Sainte-Claire 
Deville,  whose  laboratory  experiments  opened  the  way  to 
much  metallurgical  progress;  Reaumur,  who  discovered 
the  process  by  which  castings  of  cast-iron  may  be  made 
malleable  and  which  today  is  of  great  industrial  import- 
ance ;  MoissAN,  who  in  his  electric  furnace  first  succeeded 
in  reducing  oxides  hitherto  deemed  unreducible,  and 
produced  a  whole  series  of  new  carbides;  Gruner,  to 
whom  we  owe  many  of  our  scientific  conceptions  of  the 
complex  reactions  of  the  iron  blast  furnace;  Pierre  Mar- 
tin, who  first  succeeded  in  manufacturing  steel  in  an  open- 
hearth  furnace;  Osmond,  the  father  of  metallography; 
Heroult,  who  (though  ignorant  of  the  work  done  at  the 
time  by  the  American  metallurgist,  Hall)  invented  the 
electrolytic  method  of  extracting  metallic  aluminum 
from  its  ores,  and  whose  electric  furnaces  are  playing 
an  increasingly  important  part  in  the  metallurgy  of  steel; 


ENGINEERING  99 

PouRCEL,  who  contributed  so  much  to  the  early  introduc- 
tion of  the  Bessemer  process  on  the  Continent,  and  was 
a  pioneer  in  the  manufacture  of  ferro-manganese;  Henri 
Le  Chatelier,  eminent  chemist  and  metallurgist,  whose 
inventions  of  the  thermo-electric  pyrometer,  and  numer- 
ous other  contributions,  have  made  possible  much  im- 
portant progress  in  the  art  of  treating  metals;  Schneider, 
of  the  Creusot  Steel  Works;  Leon  Gthllet  and  George 
Charpy,  productive  workers  of  great  talent. 

Several  of  the  living  engineers  mentioned  above  are  prof- 
essors in  some  of  the  French  engineering  schools  (Le 
Chatelier,  Mesnager,  de  Launay,  Guillet,  and 
others). 

Instruction.  Applied  science  in  its  many  ramifica- 
tions is  taught  in  France  in  a  large  number  of  institutions. 
In  Paris  alone  not  less  than  fourteen  well-known  schools 
are  devoted  to  technical  teaching,  namely:  (i)  Con- 
servatoire National  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  (2)  Ecole  Natio- 
nale  Superieure  des  Mines,  (3)  Ecole  Nationale  des  Ponts 
et  Chaussees,  (4)  Ecole  Centrale  des  Arts  et  Manufac- 
tures, (5)  Ecole  Professionnelle  Superieure  des  Postes  et 
Telegraphes,  (6)  Ecole  Speciale  des  Travaux  Publics, 
du  Batiment  et  de  I'lndustrie,  (7)  Ecole  Municipale  de 
Physique  et  de  Chimie  Industrielles,  (8)  Ecole  Nationale 
des  Arts  et  Metiers,  (9)  Ecole  Superieure  d'Electricite, 

(10)  ficole  d'Electricite  et  de  Mecanique  Industrielles, 

(11)  Ecole  Pratique  d'Electricite  industrielle,  (12)  Ecole 
Breguet  (electricite  et  mecanique),  (13)  Ecole  Speciale 
de  Mecanique  et  d'Electricite,  and  (14)  Ecole  Superieure 
d ' Aeronautique  et  de  Construction  Mecanique.  Im- 
portant schools  of  Business  Administration,  of  Archi- 
tecture, of  Agriculture,  and  of  Military  Engineering, 
are  also  located  in  Paris, 

Applied  science  is  likewise  part  of  the  teaching  of 
nearly  all  the  provincial  universities.    These  universities 


loo  ENGINEERING 

are  situated  at  Aix-Marseille,  Besangon,  Bordeaux, 
Caen,  Clermont,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyon,  Mont- 
pellier,  Nancy,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  and  Toulouse. 

Confining  our  attention  to  the  teaching  of  Engineering, 
the  most  important  engineering  schools  of  France  are 
here  briefly  mentioned.  It  is  believed  that  each  of 
them  will  heartily  co-operate  in  any  effort  tending  to 
facihtate  the  enrollment  of  foreign  students  by  remov- 
ing the  obstacles  which  in  the  past  have  stood  in  the  way. 
The  entrance  requirements  for  foreign  students  here 
mentioned  are  those  in  force  before  the  War.  It 
is  not  unlikely  that,  in  some  instances  at  least,  they 
may  be  materially  modified. 

Ecole  Poly  technique  (Paris).  This  ancient  and  famous 
institution  does  not  confer  engineering  degrees,  but  gives 
instruction  preparatory  only  to  professional  studies  in 
engineering  or  in  military  science. 

The  fact  that  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  of  its 
graduates  have  become  members  of  the  Institute  of 
France  testifies  to  the  broadness  and  excellence  of  its 
teaching.  Of  these,  eight  have  become  members  of 
the  Academie  Frangaise  (the  list  includes  de  Freycinet, 
PoiNCARE,  Marcel  Prevost)  ;  ninety-six,  members  of  the 
Academie  des  Sciences  (including  ARAGO,Elie  de  Beau- 
mont, Cauchy,  Gay-Lussac,  Dulong,  A.  C.  Becquerel, 
H.  Becquerel,  Regnault,  Le  Chatelier,  Michel 
Levy,de  Lapparent);  seven,  members  of  the  Academie 
des  Sciences  Morales  et  Pohtiques;  nine,  members  of 
the  Academie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres;  and 
three,  members  of  the  Academie  des  Beaux  Arts.  Among 
other  illustrious  graduates  of  the  ficole  Polytechnique 
the  following  may  be  cited:  Auguste  Le  Comte,  Sadi- 
Carnot,  Admiral  Courbet,  General  de  Miribel,  Haton 
de  la  Goupilllere.  The  School  offers  a  two-year 
program  including  instruction  in   Calculus,   Geometry, 


ENGINEERING  loi 

Mechanics,  Physics,  Chemistry,  Astronomy  and  Geology, 
History  and  Literature,  Political  and  Social  Economy, 
Architecture  and  drawing. 

Foreign  students  are  admitted  to  the  School  as  day 
students  only  and  after  passing  successfully  a  special 
entrance  examination.  Successful  completion  of  the 
work  generally  admits  students  to  such  schools  of  applied 
science  as  the  Ecole  Nationale  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees, 
Genie  Maritime,  etc.  Foreign  students  pay  no  tuition 
fees. 

Ecole  Nationale  superieure  des  Mines.  The  Ecole  des 
Mines  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  world,  having  been 
founded  in  1783.  Many  of  its  graduates  have  become 
illustrious.  The  list  includes  Joseph  Bertrand,  Resal, 
Henri  Poincare,  Berthier,  Cailletet,  Rivot,  Re- 
GNAULT,  Delaunoy,  Potier,  Cornu,  Dufrenoy,  filie 
de  Beaumont,  Mallard,  Marcel  Bertrand,  de  Lap- 
parent,  Combes,  Gallon,  Gruner,  Paul  Heroult, 
Sauvage,  Couche,  Le  Chatelier.  Among  the  many 
Americans  who  have  in  the  past  studied  at  the  Ecole 
des  Mines,  the  names  of  Egleston,  who  later  helped  to 
found  the  School  of  Mines  of  Columbia  University, 
and  of  Eckley  B.  Coxe,  the  eminent  mining  engineer, 
are  conspicuous. 

Admission  to  the  School  is  by  competitive  examina- 
tion in  Algebra,  Calculus,  Trigonometry,  Analytical 
Geometry  (plane  and  sohd).  Descriptive  Geometry, 
Mechanics,  Physics  and  Chemistry.  Students  are 
also  admitted  as  "auditeurs  libres"  to  some  of  the 
courses. 

The  instruction  covers  a  period  of  three  years  and 
includes  courses  in  Mineralogy  and  Petrography 
(Grand jean),  in  Palaeontology  (Painvin  and  Zeiller, 
both  members  of  the  Institute),  Geology  (Termier,  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute,  and  De  Launay)  ,  Mining  (Lebreton), 


I02  ENGINEERING 

Metallurgy  (Angles  Dauriac),  Analytical  Chemistry 
(Chesneau,  director  of  the  School),  Mechanics  (Sauvage), 
Railroad  Engineering  (Legrain,  General  Manager  of  the 
State  Railroads),  Resistance  of  Materials  (Humbert), 
Industrial  Electricity  (Lenard),  Mining  Laws  (Aquillon), 
Industrial  Economics  (Pelletan). 

The  library  contains  over  50,000  books,  pamphlets 
or  maps  and  receives  over  300  periodical  publications. 
Its  collections  of  mineralogy  (over  30,000  specimens), 
palaeontology,  and  geology  are  famous  and  occupy  50 
large  rooms.  Fully  equipped  laboratories  for  Chemistry, 
Electricity,  Mechanics,  Mineralogy  and  Petrography, 
Metallurgy,  Physics,  and  Surveying  are  maintained. 

The  degree  conferred  on  foreign  students  is  that  of 
"Ingenieur  Civil  des  Mines,"  or  else  a  certificate  of  study. 
The  tuition  fee  is  1000  francs  per  year. 

Ecole  Nationale  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees  (Paris).  This 
important  school  was  founded  in  1747  and  its  reputa- 
tion is  universal.  Admission  is  by  competitive  exam- 
ination in  Algebra,  Trigonometry,  Analytical  Geometry 
(plane  and  solid).  Descriptive  Geometry,  Mechanics, 
Physics,  Chemistry,  Free  Hand  Drawing.  Students  are 
also  admitted  as  visitors  to  some  of  the  courses. 

The  School  offers  a  two-year  program  including  in- 
struction in  Applied  Mechanics  (Pigeaud,  Mouret), 
Construction  (Launay),  Road  Building  (Limasset), 
Railroading  (Fouan),  Applied  Electricity  (Guillebot  de 
Nerville),  Mineralogy  and  Geology  (De  Launay), 
Architecture  (Bonnet),  Law  (Chareyre,  Romieu), 
Materials  of  Construction  and  Reinforced  Concrete 
(Mesnager),  Metal  Bridges  (Resal),  Masonry  Bridges 
(Sejourne),  Naval  Works  (de  Joly),  Internal  Navi- 
gation (DusuzEAu),  Steam  Engines  and  other  Thermal 
Engines  (Walckenaer)  ,  HydrauHcs  (Imbeaux),  Po- 
litical Economy  (Colson). 


HENRI  LE  CHATELIER  (1850-) 


ENGINEERING 


ENGINEERING  103 

The  School  confers  the  degree  of  "Ingenieur  des 
Constructions  Civiles"  or  a  certificate  of  study.  There 
is  no  tuition  fee. 

Ecole  d^ Application  du  Genie  Maritime  (Paris).  Ad- 
mission to  this  School  is  by  competitive  examination, 
including  Calculus,  Descriptive  Geometry,  Mechanics, 
Drawing,  Physics,  and  Chemistry.  Properly  qualified 
foreign  students  may  be  admitted  without  examination. 
Visitors  ("auditeurs  fibres")  are  also  permitted  to  attend 
some  of  the  courses. 

A  two-year  course  is  offered,  consisting  of  winter  ses- 
sions in  Paris  and  of  summer  work  in  arsenals  and  ship 
yards.  The  instruction,  conducted  by  officers  of  the 
Genie  Maritime  and  by  engineers  of  Naval  Artillery, 
includes  courses  in  Ship  Construction,  Armament  and 
Protection,  Appfied  Mechanics,  Steam  Engines,  Boilers, 
MetaUurgy,  Technology  (Tools  and  Materials),  Aero- 
nautics, Naval  Architecture,  Land  Construction,  Torpe- 
does, Administration  and  Bookkeeping,  Submarines, 
Applied  Electricity,  Resistance  of  Materials,  Naval 
Artillery,  Graphic  Problems  and  Projects. 

The  school  confers  the  degree  of  "Ingenieur  Civil  des 
Constructions  navales"  or  a  certificate  of  study.  The 
cost  of  instruction  to  foreign  students  is  about  1800 
francs  per  year. 

Ecole  Superieure  d'Electricite  (Paris).  Admission  to 
this  important  School  is  by  competitive  examination, 
including  Mathematics  (Algebra,  plane  analytical 
Geometry,  Calculus),  general  and  appfied  Mechanics, 
Physics,  Chemistry,  Electricity,  and  Resistance  of 
Materials.  Properly  quafified  students  may  be  excused 
from  the  entrance  examination.  Visitors  ("auditeurs 
fibres")  are  also  admitted.  The  studies,  which  last  one 
year,  include  instruction  in  Appfied  Electricity  (con- 
struction,    generation,     transformation,     transmission, 


I04  ENGINEERING 

utilization,  thermal  and  chemical  application,  tests  and 
measurements),  in  Theoretical  Electricity,  and  in  Teleg- 
raphy and  Telephony.  Visits  and  projects  are  part  of 
the  work.  The  School  also  offers  a  three  months'  course 
in  Wireless  Telegraphy. 

The  degree  conferred  is  thatof  "Ingenieurfilectricien." 
The  tuition  fee  is  looo  francs  for  the  regular  course  and 
750  francs  for  the  course  in  Wireless  Telegraphy. 

Ecole  Centrale  des  Arts  et  Manufactures  (Paris).  Ad- 
mission to  the  School  is  by  competitive  examination 
in  Mathematics,  Physics,  and  Chemistry.  It  offers  a 
three-year  program,  including  instruction  in  Calculus, 
Descriptive  Geometry,  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  Archi- 
tecture and  Civil  Construction,  Hygiene,  Drawing, 
Public  Works,  Mining  Methods,  Metallurgy  (general 
and  specific),  Construction  of  Machinery,  Mechanics 
(theoretical  and  applied),  Industrial  Application  of 
Inorganic  and  Organic  Chemistry,  Railroading,  Physics 
(general  and  industrial),  Analytical  Chemistry,  Indus- 
trial Electricity,  Resistance  of  Materials,  Engineering  of 
Construction,   Thermal   Engines,    Industrial    Law. 

The  School  confers  the  degree  of  "Ingenieur  des  Arts 
et  Manufactures,"  or  else  a  certificate  of  study.  The 
tuition  fee  is  900  francs  the  first  year  and  1000  francs 
for  each  of  the  following  years. 

Institut  Chimique  de  VUniversite  de  Nancy  (Nancy; 
Meurthe  et  Moselle).  Students  are  admitted  on  the 
presentation  of  certificates  from  preparatory  schools  of 
good  standing  (lycees,  high  schools,  etc.)  or  by  examina- 
tion in  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  etc.  Two 
years  are  devoted  to  the  study  of  theoretical  and  practical 
chemistry  and  one  year  to  specialized  work.  The  degree 
of  "Ingenieur  Chimiste"  is  conferred.  The  tuition  is 
650  francs  per  year. 


Geography 


ELTSEK  RI-:CLUS  (1830-1905) 


GEOGRAPHY 


Geography' 

The  development  of  Geography  as  a  university  study 
is  of  about  as  recent  a  date  in  France  as  in  other  European 
countries.  Cartography  at  home  and  exploration  abroad 
have  flourished  longer. 

The  maps  of  France,  published  on  various  scales  and 
styles  by  the  Service  Geographique  de  I'Armee  and  other 
official  departments,  are  of  unusual  excellence;  the 
contoured  sheets  for  Algeria  on  a  scale  of  1:50,000  are 
admirable  specimens  of  topographic  art.  But  (as  is 
generally  the  case)  the  topographers  who  have  produced 
these  fine  maps  have  left  to  others  the  development  of  a 
scientific  method  of  accurately  and  intelligibly  describ- 
ing in  words  the  facts  of  form  and  distribution  which 
maps  portray  graphically.  A  partial  exception  to  this 
statement  is  found  in  General  Berthaut's  "Topologie" 
(1909-10),  in  which  many  beautiful  examples  of  topo- 
graphic work  are  reproduced,  but  the  text  savors  of  an 
earlier  century  than  the  20th. 

French  explorers  of  oceans  and  continents  have  de- 
servedly gained  renown  for  bringing  to  light  the  existence 
of  previously  unknown  lands  and  waters;  but,  like 
most  other  explorers,  those  of  France  have  not  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  systematic  aspects  of  modern 
geographical  science.  The  great  Societe  de  Geo- 
GRAPHIE  of  Paris  gives  opportunity  for  study  in  its 
extensive  library,  supports  exploration  with  its  funds, 
publishes  the  results  in  its  journal,  "La  Geographie," 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  W.  M.  Davis,  Harvard  University;  R.  H. 
Whitbeck,  University  of  Wisconsin. —  Ed.] 

107 


io8  GEOGRAPHY 

and  rewards  them  with  its  medals.  But,  like  nearly  all 
other  large  geographical  societies,  its  activities  are  more 
associated  with  popularization  than  with  research; 
and  the  same  is  true  of  several  smaller  geographical 
societies  elsewhere  in  France.  Certain  societies  of  com- 
mercial geography  have  also  been  founded,  but  their 
publications  seldom  contain  anything  more  than  an 
elementary  geographical  basis  for  studies  that  are  largely 
of  a  statistical  or  economical  nature. 

The  great  compilers,  Malte-Brun  early  in  the  19th 
century  and  Reclus  near  its  close,  each  produced  a 
"Geographic  universelle"  in  many  volumes  that  will 
endure  as  monuments  to  the  authors'  patience  and  eru- 
dition; but  these  works  were  completed  before  the 
philosophy  of  evolution,  inorganic  and  organic,  had 
given  to  geography  its  modern  scientific  spirit,  and  they 
no  longer  serve  as  models  for  geographic  treatment. 

In  more  recent  years  the  higher  study  of  geography 
in  France  has  advanced  in  two  directions :  first  in  phys- 
ical geography,  under  the  inspiration  of  de  la  Noe 
and  DE  Margerie,  whose  " Formes  du  Terrain"  (1888) 
revealed  new  lines  of  research  in  an  old  subject,  and  later 
under  the  leadership  of  the  eminent  geologist,  de  Lap- 
parent,  whose  ''Legons  de  geographic  physique"  (1896) 
attracted  renewed  attention  to  the  modern  aspects  of 
the  study  of  land  forms;  secondly  in  descriptive  geography, 
under  the  leadership  of  Vidal  de  la  Blache,  whose 
earlier  training  was  in  history.  In  the  first  of  these  direc- 
tions, Barre  has  prepared  an  excellent  local  work,  '^L'ar- 
chitecture  du  sol  de  la  France"  (1903),  and  de  Martonne 
has  produced  a  systematic  work,  "Traite  de  Geographic 
physique"  (1907,  191 3),  which  is  today  recognized  as 
of  standard  value.  But  it  is  in  the  second  direction  that 
geography  has  recently  flourished  in  France;  for,  although 
its  leader  has  now  retired  from  teaching,  nearly  all  the 


GEOGRAPHY  109 

more  notable  modern  geographical  studies  in  France 
are  the  work  of  his  pupils,  or  of  his  pupils'  pupils,  a 
goodly  number  of  whom  have  become  professors  of  geog- 
raphy in  French  universities.  Among  the  recent  works 
thus  and  otherwise  inspired  the  following  deserve  espe- 
cial mention:  Schirmer,  "Le  Sahara"  (1893),  Dele- 
BECQUE,  "Les  lacs  frangais"  (1898),  Brunhes,  "L 'irri- 
gation" (1902),  DE  Martonne,  "La,  Valachie"  (1902), 
Bernard  and  Lacroix,  "L 'evolution  du  nomadisme  en 
Algerie"  (1906),  Blanchard,  "La  Flandre"  (1906), 
Vallaux,  "La  Basse-Bretagne"  (1907),  Vacher, 
"Le  Berry"  (1908),  Passerat,  "Les  plaines  du  Poitou" 
(1909),  Demangeon,  "Le  relief  du  Limousin"  (19 10), 
Levainville,  "Rouen"  (1913),  Sorre,  "Les  Pyrenees 
mediterraneennes"  (1913).  The  "Annales  de  Geo- 
graphie,"  founded  in  1893  by  Vidal  de  la  Blache  and 
still  edited  by  him  in  collaboration  with  de  Margerie 
and  Gallois,  is  an  important  medium  of  scientific  pub- 
lication; its  "  Bibliographie  annuelle,"  compiled  by 
Raveneau  and  many  collaborators,  is  an  indispensable 
aid  in  serious  study. 

Instruction.  The  French  School  of  Geography^^  is 
today,  since  the  retirement  of  its  founder,  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  his  former  pupils  who  are  now  professors  in 
various  universities.  While  their  work  is  sufficiently 
marked  by  individuality,  it  nevertheless  bears  the 
imprint  of  their  master,  whose  attractive  but  not  always 
specific  style  may  be  studied  in  his  noted  volume,  "La 
France,  Tableau  geographique "  (1903,  1908),  prepared 
as  an  introduction  to  Lavisse's  History  of  France.  He 
has  been  engaged  for  several  years  past,  in  conjunction 
with  a  number  of  his  disciples,  on  a  regional  geography 
of  the  world,  the  volumes  of  which  are  awaited  with 
interest. 


no  GEOGRAPHY 

The  leading  characteristic  of  this  school  is  a  devoted 
studiousness,  the  natural  result  of  the  severe  discipline 
of  the  "agregation,"  or  competitive  examination,  held 
in  Paris,  and  based  on  a  specified  course  of  advanced 
geographical  study,  which  must  be  taken  by  all  candi- 
dates for  teaching  positions  in  France  and  in  which 
only  as  many  candidates  are  passed  as  are  needed  to 
fill  vacant  positions.  During  the  assiduous  preparation 
for  this  examination  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  thesis 
which  accompanies  it,  every  pertinent  element  is  gathered 
from  geology,  geography,  and  biology,  and  above  all 
from  history,  with  the  intent  of  finally  combining  all 
these  elements  in  regional  descriptions.  The  product 
of  this  intent  is,  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics,  too  geol- 
ogical at  its  beginning,  too  historical  at  its  end,  and  not 
systematic  enough  through  much  of  its  course  to  repre- 
sent the  finest  geographical  ideal.  But  it  is  still  an  ad- 
mirable product,  worthy  of  attentive  examination  by 
American  students,  even  though  its  imitation  in  this 
country  may  be  difficult  because  our  historical  records 
are  for  the  most  part  so  brief  and  scanty, — to  say  nothing 
of  its  being  unnecessary  because  at  present  the  demand 
for  geographical  scholarship  is  in  most  of  our  universi- 
ties so  small. 

It  is  naturally  in  Paris  and  at  the  Sorhonne  (as 
that  part  of  the  University  of  Paris  is  called  which  is 
directed  by  the  Faculties  of  Letters  and  of  Sciences) 
that  the  French  school  of  Geography  is  best  exemplified. 
Here  the  courses  and  laboratories  in  general  geography, 
developed  under  the  Faculty  of  Letters  by  Vidal  de  la 
Blache,  and  under  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  by  Velain 
(courses  and  laboratories  which  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  be 
united  and  administered  under  a  single  geographical 
institute),  are  now,  since  the  retirement  of  their  seniors, 
carried  on  by  Gallois,  Demangeon,  de  Martonne, 


EMMANUEL  de  MARTONNE  (1873- 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY  m 

and  their  associates.  In  more  or  less  close  association 
with  the  Sorbonne  are  various  additional  establish- 
ments: the  College  de  France^  where  Brunhes 
lectures  on  human  geography;  the  Institut  oceano- 
graphique,  founded  by  the  Prince  of  Monaco,  where 
lectures  and  conferences  are  held;  and  other  institutions 
where  subjects  allied  to  geography  may  be  pursued. 
Inter-university  excursions,  ordinarily  held  in  the 
spring,  give  practical  but  brief  experience  in  field  study. 
The  fourteen  provincial  universities  of  France  offer 
less  expanded  opportunity  for  geographical  study  than 
is  found  in  Paris,  yet  in  many  of  them  certain  lines  of 
work  are  well  developed  and  may  be  pursued  to  much 
advantage.  Thus,  Flahault  has  made  a  specialty  of 
plant  geography  at  Montpellier,  and  Blanchard  of 
alpine  geography  at  Grenoble.  The  situation  of  these 
universities  necessarily  exercises  much  influence  over 
the  subdivisions  of  geography  which  they  can  best 
illustrate.  Thus,  commercial  and  colonial  geography 
have  exceptional  encouragement  at  Bordeaux;  features 
of  volcanic  origin  are  best  exemplified  at  Clermont- 
Ferrand  in  the  classic  region  of  Auvergne;  unusually 
varied  opportunity  for  the  study  of  cuestas  in  their 
influence  on  population  and  history  is  afforded  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Nancy;  coastal  features  of  large  va- 
riety and  practical  importance  in  maritime  relations 
are  found  near  Rennes.  An  advantage  which  students 
may  enjoy  at  the  smaUer  universities  is  the  close  personal 
association  with  their  professors,  which  counts  for  so 
much  in  advanced  work. 


Geology 


INCLUDING 


MINERALOGY,  PETROLOGY, 
AND  PALAEONTOLOGY 


Geology* 


The  part  which  France  has  played  in  the  long  history 
of  geological  science  is  a  particularly  distinguished  one. 
In  the  controversial  period  of  rival  schools  of  geology, 
which  preceded  that  of  careful  observation,  she  was 
fortunate  in  not  being  drawn  within  the  charmed  circle 
of  the  followers  of  Werner  at  Freiberg,  where  the  sedi- 
mentary origin  of  basalt  was  proclaimed  and  hotly 
defended.  It  was  in  France,  through  the  work  of 
GuETTARD  and  Demarest,  that  this  colossal  error,  which 
held  back  for  decades  the  development  of  the  science, 
was  finally  overthrown.  As  regards  the  other  dominant 
error  which  characterized  eighteenth  century  geology — 
the  elevation  crater  idea  of  the  Prussian  geologist  von 
Buch  —  France  was  less  fortunate,  for  one  of  her  most 
briUiant  geologists,  fihe  de  Beaumont,  fell  under  the 
spell  of  this  delusion. 

When,  with  the  dawn  of  the  nineteenth  century,  geol- 
ogy developed  as  an  observational  science,  largely  in  the 
fields  of  stratigraphy  and  palaeontology,  the  contribu- 
tions of  French  geologists  were  noteworthy.  It  is  neces- 
sary only  to  mention  the  names  of  Cuvier,  Lamarck, 
d'ARCHiAC,  d'ORBiGNY,  and  Brongniart,  to  confirm 
this  statement.  Cuvier's  famous  "Discours  sur  les 
revolutions  de  la  surface  du  globe  et  sur  les  changements 
qu'elles  ont  produits  dans  le  regne  animal,"  which  ap- 
peared in  1822,  supplies  one  of  the  great  landmarks  in 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  T.  C.  Chamberlin,  University  of  Chicago; 
U.  S.  Grant,  Northwestern  University;  W.  H.  Hobbs,  University  of 
Michigan. —  Ed.] 

IIS 


ii6  GEOLOGY 

the  development  of  the  science.  The  foundations  of  the 
relatively  modern  science  of  physiographical  geology  had 
already  been  laid  in  the  eighteenth  century,  through 
studies  by  Demarest  in  the  valleys  of  the  Auvergne  of 
Central  France, —  studies  which  have  been  ably  extended 
in  our  own  day  by  de  la  Noe,  de  Margerie,  and  de 
Martonne.  The  brilliant  de  Beaumont,  in  collabo- 
ration with  DuERENOY,  gave  a  great  impetus  to  geological 
mapping,  at  the  time  in  its  infancy,  by  the  preparation 
of  the  geological  map  of  France  begun  in  1825. 

Earthquake  study  necessarily  began  with  the  collec- 
tion of  facts  connected  with  the  great  earthquakes  of  the 
past.  These  data,  as  assembled  by  Alexis  Perrey  of 
Dijon  between  the  years  1841  and  1874,  constitute  a 
great  reservoir  from  which  all  later  investigations  have 
drawn  their  supplies.  Today  the  greatest  systematizer 
in  seismology  and  its  leading  authority  is  a  Frenchman, 
Count  de  Montessus  de  Ballore.  Within  the  field  of 
oceanography,  studies  of  the  most  fundamental  character 
dealing  with  the  deposits  upon  the  sea  bottom  have  been 
carried  out  by  Thoulet.  In  the  field  of  structural 
geology,  it  is  today  generally  recognized  that  the  key 
to  the  solution  of  that  most  complex  problem,  the  struct- 
ure of  the  Alps,  was  supplied  by  Bertrand,  upon  the 
basis  of  studies  made  in  the  north  of  France.  His  other 
investigations  covered  a  very  wide  field  and  were  of 
prime  importance.  Experiments  to  reproduce  rock 
structures  in  the  laboratory  have  had  their  origin  and 
development  very  largely  in  France;  the  leading  part  (if 
we  except  the  most  recent  work  by  refined  methods) 
having  been  taken  by  Daubree.  A  reservoir  of  data 
upon  existing  glaciers  is  the  "Materiaux  pour  I'etude 
des  glaciers,"  by  Dollfus-Ausset,  which  appeared  in 
thirteen  volumes  between  1864  and  1870.  The  most 
noteworthy  of  general  treatises  upon  geology,  in  the 


GEOLOGY  117 

French  language,  are  those  of  de  Lapparent  (in  five 
volumes)  and  of  Haug  (in  two  volumes). 

University  Studies  of  Today.  For  students  purposing 
to  pursue  geological  studies  in  France,  by  far  the  best 
opportunities  are  offered  in  Paris  by  the  University, 
the  College  de  France,  and  the  Ecole  Superieure  des 
Mines,  supplemented  as  they  are  by  the  almost  unrivaled 
collection  of  museums  and  libraries  to  be  found  in  the 
city.  Outside  Paris,  the  best  opportunities  are  realized 
at  the  provincial  universities  of  Grenoble,  Lille,  and  at 
Clermont,  either  because  of  exceptional  strength  of  the 
geological  staff  in  the  University  or  because  of  special 
facilities  for  study  in  the  field.  Unlike  other  depart- 
ments, the  laboratory  of  geologists  is  out  of  doors,  and 
opportunities  for  the  investigation  of  definite  problems 
in  the  field  may  well  be  a  determining  factor  in  the 
choice  of  the  university,  provided  other  conditions  are 
met.  At  Grenoble  exceptional  facilities  are  found  for 
structural,  stratigraphical,  and  palaeontological  studies, 
and  for  those  upon  existing  glaciers  as  well.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Clermont  is  situated  within  a  classic  region  of 
recent  though  extinct  volcanoes,  and  offers  numerous 
problems  in  vulcanology.  The  University  of  Lille  is  at 
the  heart  of  the  great  coal  mining  region  of  the  north  of 
France,  and  special  attention  is  there  given  to  problems 
of  economic  geology,  to  structural  geology,  and,  because 
of  the  preeminence  of  the  head  of  the  department  in  the 
field  of  the  crystalline  rocks,  to  pre-Cambrian  geology 
as  well. 

The  attention  which  for  the  first  time  in  recent  years 
has  been  devoted  to  the  geology  of  the  desert  areas  makes 
it  desirable  to  draw  attention  to  the  unique  opportuni- 
ties offered  by  the  University  of  Algiers  for  the  study  of 
such  conditions.    Situated  on  the  borders  of  the  greatest 


ii8  GEOLOGY 

of  all  deserts,  and  connected  by  railways  with  different 
sections  of  the  desert  area,  a  student  may  work  under 
the  guidance  of  specialists  who  have  already  acquired  a 
wide  reputation  by  their  studies  of  arid  conditions. 

Paris.  At  the  University  of  Paris  the  work  in  geology 
is  in  charge  of  Emile  Haug,  whose  major  investigations 
have  dealt  principally  with  the  great  problems  of  sedi- 
mentation in  connection  with  areas  of  denudation.  His 
principal  monograph  upon  this  subject  is  "Les  geosyn- 
clinaux  et  les  aires  continentales,  Contributions  a  I'etude 
des  transgressions  et  des  regressions  marines,"  published 
in  1900.  He  has  also  contributed  to  the  study  of  the 
great  nappes  of  the  Alps  and  his  "Traite  de  geologic" 
(the  second  volume  appeared  in  191 1)  is  the  most  mod- 
ern of  geological  treatises  printed  in  the  French  language. 
Physical  geography  is  in  charge  of  Emmanuel  de  Mar- 
tonne,  well-known  for  his  studies  in  the  Carpathians  and 
Roumania,  and  for  his  "Traite  de  geographic  physique," 
which  was  published  in  1909  and  is  the  best  general 
treatise  upon  the  subject  in  any  language. 

At  the  College  de  France,  the  teaching  of  geology  is 
conducted  by  Lucien  Cayeux,  well-known  for  his  studies 
upon  the  microscopical  structure  of  sediments. 

At  the  Ecole  Superieure  des  Mines,  geology  is  in 
charge  of  Pierre  Termier,  who  is  also  the  Chief  Engineer 
of  Mines  and  Director  of  the  Service  de  la  Carte  Geolo- 
gique.  Outside  the  special  field  of  mining,  Termier  has 
acquired  distinction  from  his  investigation  of  the  prob- 
lems of  Alpine  structure. 

Louis  DE  Launay,  well-known  for  his  studies  of  ground 
water  and  ore  deposition,  is  in  charge  of  geology  at  the 
£)cole  Nationale  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees. 

At  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  Scientifiques  of  the 
Institut  Catholique,  Jean  BoussAC,  known  for  his  studies 
of  Alpine  structure,  occupies  the  chair  of  geology. 


GEOLOGY  119 

A  number  of  geologists  of  distinction,  not  connected 
directly  with  any  of  the  French  schools,  are  resident  in 
Paris  and  actively  engaged  in  geological  studies ;  these  in- 
clude Em.  DE  Margerie,  former  president  of  the  Societe 
Geologique,  translator  of  Suess'  ''Das  Anthtz  der  Erde," 
and  possessing  perhaps  the  widest  knowledge  of  geological 
literature  of  any  one  now  living;  Alfred  Lacroix,  pro- 
fessor of  Mineralogy  at  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  authorities  on  volcanoes;  Stanislas 
Meunier,  in  charge  of  geology  at  the  same  institution, 
known  particularly  for  his  studies  upon  meteorites; 
Charles  Rabot,  a  leading  authority  upon  glaciers  and 
lately  president  of  the  International  Commission  on 
Glaciers,  editor  of  "La  Geographie";  Leon  Carez, 
the  principal  collaborator  in  the  French  Geological 
Service;  Commandant  O.  Barre,  an  authority  on  tec- 
tonic geology;  and  General  Berthaut,  author  of  a 
two-volume  work  of  great  value  upon  topography  in 
relation  to  physiography.  Some  of  these  (such  as 
Lacroix  and  Meunier)  give  courses  of  lectures  open  to 
students. 

Supplementary  to  the  geological  collections  in  labora- 
tories of  the  University  and  other  higher  institutions  of 
learning,  there  are  the  great  collections  of  the  Museum 
d'Histoire  Naturelle,  situated  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 
Of  libraries  of  special  interest  to  geologists,  one  of  the 
best  is  located  in  this  museum,  and  in  addition  there 
are  the  large  geological  libraries  of  the  Societe  Geologique 
de  France  and  that  of  the  French  Academy. 

The  principal  geological  periodicals  published  in  Paris 
are  the  "Bulletin"  and  "Memoires"  of  the  Societe 
Geologique  de  France,  and  "Comptes  rendus  hebdoma- 
daires  des  seances  de  1' Academic  des  Sciences, ""  Annales 
des  Mines,"  "Bulletin  des  Services  de  la  Carte  geolo- 
gique de  la  France  et  des  Topographies  souterraines," 


I20  GEOLOGY 

"Annales  de  Geographic,"  "La  Geographic,"  "Annalcs 
de  rinstitut  Oceanographique." 

The  Provinces.  As  already  stated,  while  undoubtedly 
the  best  opportunities  for  geological  study  are  to  be  found 
in  Paris,  there  arc  often  special  reasons  why  the  work 
of  a  graduate  student  may  best  be  carried  on  at  one  of 
the  universities  of  the  provinces,  which  offer  a  wide 
variety  of  geological  problems  in  the  rocks  of  their 
surroundings.  Among  professors  in  charge  of  the  work 
in  geology  at  the  provincial  universities  are  the  follow- 
ing: Lille:  Charles  Barrois,  a  leading  authority  upon 
the  geology  of  the  pre-Cambrian  rocks,  and  particu- 
larly those  of  Brittany;  Grenoble:  W.  Kilian,  an 
authority  upon  the  stratigraphy  and  palaeontology  of  the 
Cretaceous  formation;  Dijon:  Louis  Collot;  Mar- 
seille: Gaston  Vasseur,  whose  field  of  study  has  been 
the  Tertiary  of  Western  France;  Nancy  (where  there  is 
a  School  of  Geological  Engineering) :  Rene  Nickles,  an 
authority  upon  the  geology  of  Southeastern  Spain; 
Clermont-Ferrand:  Ph.  Glangeaud,  whose  special  field 
has  been  the  volcanic  region  of  Central  France;  Lyon: 
Charles  Deperet,  an  authority  upon  Miocene  geology, 
with  whom  is  associated  Frederic  Roman  in  the  field  of 
agricultural  geology;  Bordeaux:  Emmanuel  Fallot; 
Toidouse:  Charles  Jacob,  in  the  field  of  Alpine  geology 
and  glacial  geology;  Caen:  Alexandre  Bigot,  an  authori- 
ty upon  the  crystalline  rocks  of  Brittany;  Poitiers:  Jules 
Welsch,  who  has  given  much  attention  to  the  tectonic 
geology  of  Western  France;  Rennes:  Jean  Seunes; 
Besanqon:  Eugene  Fournier,  tectonic  geology,  hydrology, 
and  speleology;  Montpellier:  A.  Delage. 

At  the  University  of  Algiers,  where  such  unexcelled 
facilities  are  offered  for  the  study  of  desert  geology, 
there  is  a  strong  staff  of  specialists  in  this  field,  and  ex- 
ceptional opportunities  are  afforded  for  the  study  of 


GEOLOGY  121 

Arabic  and  for  the  investigation  of  economic  problems 
connected  with  the  exploitation  of  deserts.  The  head  of 
the  geological  department,  and  Adjunct  Director  of  the 
Service  de  la  Carte  geologique  de  I'Algerie,  is  Emile 
FiCHEUR.  He  is  assisted  by  Arbel  Brives,  who  is  a 
collaborator  upon  the  survey  as  well  as  a  professor  in 
the  geological  department.  Georges  Flamand  occupies 
the  chair  of  physical  geography  of  the  Sahara,  and 
enjoys  a  wide  reputation  for  his  explorations  in  the 
desert.  In  addition  the  University  of  Algiers  supports 
a  professor  of  the  geography  of  Africa  in  the  person  of 
Emile-Felix  Gautier,  deservedly  well-known  for  many 
important  works  in  this  field.  Inasmuch  as  the  geology 
of  deserts  is  a  subject  hkely  to  occupy  an  important 
place  in  the  discussions  of  geologists  in  the  near  future, 
the  advantages  of  Algiers  as  a  place  of  study  may  well 
be  emphasized. 


Mineralogy  and 

PETROLOGY' 

In  the  fields  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrology,  French 
scientists  have  made  contributions  of  inestimable  value, 
and  in  some  parts  of  these  fields  they  have  opened  the 
way  and  taken  a  predominant  part  in  the  work  of  de- 
tailed investigation  as  well  as  exploration. 

MINERALOGY 

Knowledge  of  minerals  is  based  upon  a  study  of  them 
in  crystal  form;  the  science  of  crystals  was  founded  and 
built  in  France;  as  truly  stated  by  Mallard:  "Crystal- 
lography was  thus  created  as  a  whole  by  the  genius  of 
Haijy,  and  his  successors  have  scarcely  had  to  do  more 
than  perfect  the  details  of  his  work.  No  other  branch  of 
human  knowledge  is,  to  the  same  extent,  the  work  of  one 
man."  Later,  DelapoSse  and  Bravais  developed  the 
theory  of  a  mesh  or  space-lattice  of  physical  units  as  the 
structure  of  crystals  —  a  theory  completely  established, 
within  the  past  two  years,  by  means  of  studies  with  X- 
rays.  Fizeau  and  Le  Chatelier  made  numerous  investi- 
gations of  the  expansion  of  crystals  upon  heating,  some  of 
which  have  had  an  important  bearing  upon  questions  of 
the  condition  of  formation,  especially  of  quartzose  rocks. 

An  excellent  method  of  chemical  analysis  of  silicate 
minerals  was  early  developed  by  Ste.-Claire-Deville, 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  A.  N.  Winchell,  University  of  Wisconsin. 
—  Ed.] 


122 


MINERALOGY 


MINERALOGY  123 

Spectral  analysis  of  zinc  blende  from  the  Pyrenees  led 
BoiSBAUDRAN  to  the  discovery  of  gallium.  Radium  was 
discovered  by  the  Curies  as  a  result  of  careful  investi- 
gation of  pitchblende  and  other  uranium-bearing  miner- 
als. Friedel  and  Grand  jean  have  recently  studied  the 
nature  of  the  water  in  zeolites,  and  have  shown  that 
it  can  be  expelled  and  reabsorbed  or  replaced  by  other 
Uquids  or  gases  without  destroying  or  changing  the 
nature  of  the  crystal  structure. 

The  methods  of  synthetic  mineralogy  were  developed 
in  France.  Fouque  and  Michel-Levy  reproduced  all 
the  minerals  of  volcanic  rocks,  except  quartz  and  ortho- 
clase,  by  means  of  crystallization  from  dry  fusion.  By 
the  same  process,  Gaudin  and  Verneuil  produced  ruby 
and  sapphire,  the  manufacture  of  which  has  now  become 
an  important  industry.  Fusion  in  the  presence  of  min- 
eralizers  is  a  method  which  has  yielded  important  results 
in  the  hands  of  several  experimenters,  notably  Deville, 
Hautefeuille,  Bourgeois,  Gorgeu,  Fremy,  and 
Ebelmen.  Finally,  several  minerals  have  been  produced 
in  the  presence  of  water  (or  water-vapor)  heated  in  a 
sealed  tube,  by  Daueree,  Sarasin,  and  Friedel. 

The  minerals  of  metalliferous  veins  and  ore  deposits 
are  of  much  practical  importance;  Beaumont  was  the 
first  to  present  a  complete  and  rational  theory  to  explain 
the  origin  of  such  deposits;  many  of  the  classic  experi- 
ments of  Daubree  were  devised  to  shed  light  on  the 
same  problem.  De  Launay  has  continued  this  work 
and  prepared  scientific  descriptions  of  the  ores  of  the 
world. 


124  GEOLOGY 


PETROLOGY 

Rocks  are  composed  of  minerals;  therefore  a  knowl- 
edge of  minerals  is  essential  to  an  understanding  of  rocks, 
and  the  science  of  mineralogy  was  necessarily  developed 
before  that  of  petrology.  In  rocks,  minerals  are  usually 
present  in  very  small  crystals;  therefore  rocks  are  studied 
chiefly  by  microscopic  methods.  Fouque  and  Michel- 
Levy  introduced  in  France  these  methods,  which  are 
based  on  optical  properties  first  deduced  by  Fresnel. 
Des  Cloizeaux  applied  the  methods  to  the  study  of 
minerals  as  such,  and  thus  supplied  the  fundamental 
data  necessary  for  petrographic  work.  Michel-Levy 
and  Lacroix  continued  the  determination  of  data,  de- 
veloping at  the  same  time  additional  methods  of  using 
optical  properties  in  identifying  minerals. 

Fouque  and  Michel-Levy  proposed  a  classification 
of  igneous  rocks,  based  on  mineral  composition  and  on 
texture,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  classification  now 
in  use  in  France,  and  has  contributed  much  to  classifi- 
cations in  use  in  other  countries.  Michel-Levy  empha- 
sized the  importance  of  mineralizing  agents  in  processes 
of  differentiation  as  well  as  in  those  of  contact  metamor- 
phism. 

Lacroix  has  shown  that  contact  exomorphism  con- 
sists not  only  in  physical  changes,  but  also  includes 
chemical  transformations  due  to  introduction  of  material 
of  magmatic  origin.  He  has  also  described  evidence  to 
show  that  granitic  magmas  may  be  changed  to  diorites, 
etc.,  by  contact  endomorphism.  Lacroix  has  also 
written  a  monographic  work  on  the  "Mineralogy  of 
France,"  in  which  he  has  emphasized  the  varying  modes  of 
occurrence  and  of  alteration  of  minerals  in  order  to  fix 
the  mode  of  origin  and  conditions  of  stability.    In  a  similar 


PETROLOGY  125 

way  he  has  studied  the  lavas  of  Mont  Pelee  from  all  points 
of  view,  in  order  to  draw  general  conclusions  concern- 
ing their  origin. 

University  Studies  of  Today.  Paris.  At  the  present 
time  the  leading  mineralogist  and  petrologist  in  France 
is  Alfred  Lacroix,  who  succeeded  des  Cloizeaux  as  pro- 
fessor of  mineralog}^  at  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle 
in  1893.  He  has  published  a  five-volume  work  on  "La 
mineralogie  de  France,"  which  is  a  standard  treatise  on 
the  optical  properties  and  modes  of  occurrence  of  min- 
erals; a  volume  on  "Les  enclaves  des  roches  volcaniques;" 
two  volumes  on  volcanic  activity  at  Vesuvius  and  Mont 
Pelee;  and  numerous  important  studies  of  minerals,  of 
contact  metamorphism,  of  descriptive  petrography,  and 
of  rock  alteration.  He  offers  courses  of  lectures  on 
mineralogy;  but  the  student  prizes  especially  the  oppor- 
tunity to  study  in  his  laboratories  under  his  inspiring 
guidance.  At  the  same  institution  Stanislas  Meunier 
holds  the  chair  of  geology;  he  is  the  author  of  an  impor- 
tant work  on  "Lesmethodes  de  synthese  en  mineralogie." 
At  the  University  of  Paris,  Louis  Gentil,  who  has 
described  petrographically  certain  districts  in  Algeria, 
offers  excellent  courses  in  general  petrography. 

At  the  College  de  France,  the  eminent  crystallographer, 
F.  Wallerant,  is  in  charge  of  the  work  in  mineralogy; 
he  has  pubHshed  important  contributions  to  crystal 
theory.  Here,  also,  is  L.  Cayeux,  who  is  an  authority 
in  the  relatively  neglected  field  of  the  petrography  of 
sedimentary  rocks;  recently  he  has  extended  his  studies 
to  include  all  types  of  iron  ores. 

At  the  Ecole  des  Mines  is  the  well  known  mineralogist, 
Termier,  who  has  been  a  close  student  of  individual 
minerals  and  of  the  crystalline  schists  of  the  Alps.  L. 
De  Launay  offers  courses  at  this  school  and  also  at  the 


126  GEOLOGY 

ficole  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees;  he  has  published  several 
important  volumes  treating  of  the  origin  of  the  minerals 
in  ore  deposits. 

Le  Chatelier,  Urbain,  and  Matignon  are  primarily 
chemists,  but  they  have  made  various  contributions  to 
mineralogy,  especially  from  the  chemical  point  of  view. 
Le  Chatelier  and  Urbain  are  at  the  University  of 
Paris;  Matignon  is  at  the  College  de  France. 

Outside  of  Paris.  One  of  the  most  prominent  mineral- 
ogists is  G.  Friedel  at  the  ficole  des  Mines  of  Saint 
Etienne  at  Lyon,  who  has  done  notable  experimental 
work  with  the  zeolites,  and  has  published  works  on 
crystallography.  At  the  University  of  Montpellier,  miner- 
alogy is  in  charge  of  Curie,  who  studied  the  eruptive 
rocks  of  Algeria,  and  has  been  associated  in  some  work 
on  piezo-electricity  with  the  discoverer  of  radium.  At 
the  University  of  Nancy,  Thoulet  has  made  studies  of 
the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  microscopic 
minerals.  Joseph  Caralp  is  professor  of  mineralogy  at 
the  University  of  Toulouse.  At  Nancy,  the  Institute  of 
Geology  trains  mining  engineers. 

From  a  petrographic  point  of  view  the  University  of 
Lille  is  the  most  important  institution  outside  of  Paris. 
It  is  here  that  Barrois  is  professor  of  geology,  and 
Offret  professor  of  mineralogy.  Barrois  has  described 
in  detail  the  contact  metamorphism  of  sandstones, 
shales,  and  limestones,  and  Offret  has  made  petrographic 
studies  of  certain  rocks  and  minerals. 


ADOLPHE  BRONGNIART  (1801-1876) 


CKfir.OCV:    I'ALAEONTOLOGV 


PALAEONTOLOGY' 

In  the  history  of  palaeontology  there  is  no  nation  so 
rich  in  memories  as  France,  none  held  in  so  great  regard 
by  students  —  in  almost  reverential  regard  by  the 
student  of  extinct  vertebrates  especially,  for  there  his 
science  was  born  a  century  ago,  and  Cuvier  was  its 
father.  The  world's  greatest  scientist  of  his  time,  and 
one  of  the  greatest  naturalists  of  all  time,  Cuvier  first 
taught  the  real  meaning  of  fossils,  and  especially  verte- 
brate fossils.  With  him  began  a  new  epoch  in  all  palaeon- 
tology, one  based  upon  zoology;  and  fossils  ceased  to  be 
mere  curiosities  in  the  rocks,  or  the  mere  tools  of  geology. 

The  great  Sir  Richard  Owen  of  England  was  his  stu- 
dent, but  all  felt  the  effects  of  Cuvier 's  brilliant  mind. 
De  Blainville,  Deslongchamps,  Filhol,  Gervais, 
Milne-Edwards,  Sauvage,  Lartet,  and  Gaudry  are 
among  the  many  Frenchmen  of  the  nineteenth  century 
who  won  enduring  fame  wherever  vertebrate  palaeon- 
tology is  studied;  and  among  those  of  the  present  day, 
Deperet,  Boule,  Priem,  Leriche,  and  Thevenin,  are 
some  of  those  whose  reputations  have  extended  world- 
wide. 

Nor  is  invertebrate  palaeontology  any  less  indebted  to 
France  of  the  nineteenth,  and  even  the  eighteenth 
centuries.  Beginning  with  the  famous  Buffon,  who  for 
more  than  a  century  was  a  delight  to  children  every- 
where, the  most  noted  of  all,  perhaps,  though  not  ex- 
clusively a  palaeontologist,  was  Lamarck,  who  found  in 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  S.  W.  Williston,  University  of  Chicago. — 
Ed.] 

127 


128  GEOLOGY 

the  "animaux  sans  vertebres/'  both  living  and  fossil, 
the  foundations  for  his  famous  theories  of  development, 
theories  which  are  even  more  vigorously  discussed  today 
than  when  they  were  first  offered.  Suffice  it  to  mention 
the  names  of  only  a  few  that  every  student  of  the  science 
knows:  Barrande,  Brongniart,  Deshayes,  A.  Milne- 
Edwards,  PoMEL,  Lemoine,  and  especially  d'ORBiGNY. 
And  in  paleobotany  the  indebtedness  of  the  world  is 
equally  great,  perhaps  greater;  for  Adolphe  Brongniart 
has  been  rightly  called  the  father  of  the  science.  And  what 
naturalist  has  not  heard  of  Saporta?  And  there  have 
been  and  are  many  others. 

One  is  safe  in  saying,  on  a  survey  of  the  great  names  of 
palaeontology,  that  no  nation  of  the  nineteenth  century 
did  as  much  to  advance  the  science  of  palaeontology ;  none 
has  a  greater  list  of  eminent  scientific  names  in  palaeon- 
tology. 

Instruction.  What  has  France  to  offer  the  student  of 
palaeontology  today?  First  of  all,  a  rich  and  inspiring 
memory  of  the  great  scientific  men  of  the  past.  And, 
secondly,  the  rich  collections  that  have  served  these  men 
in  their  investigations,  and  the  great  museums  and  able 
teachers  of  today. 

These  collections  are  scattered  more  or  less  throughout 
the  institutions  of  France.  But  (it  goes  without  saying) 
the  most  extensive  and  important  of  all  are  in  Paris, 
and  especially  in  the  great  Natural  History  Museum, 
where  American  scientists  have  spent  very  pleasurable 
and  fruitful  days.  One  of  the  divisions  of  its  vast  collec- 
tions is  formed  by  palaeontology  ("Galerie  d'anatomie 
comparee,  d'anthropologie,  et  de  paleontologie,"  founded 
by  Cuvier).  The  library  contains  250,000  volumes,  and, 
besides  the  lecture  courses,  there  are  monthly  meetings 
of  the  scholars  pursuing  research  there.     At  the  ficole 


PALAEONTOLOGY  129 

Nationale  Superieure  des  Mines  also,  there  is  a  valuable 
and  noted  collection  in  palaeontology.  The  Universities 
of  Caen,  Grenoble,  and  Lille,  also  have  special  collections 
in  palaeontology. 

One  of  the  few  periodicals  anywhere  devoted  to  palaeon- 
tology is  the  Annales  de  Paleontologie,  published  for  the 
past  ten  years  at  Paris  under  the  direction  of  Boule. 

Palaeontology  cannot  be  pursued  as  an  isolated  science. 
Fossils  are  merely  animals  and  plants  that  have  been 
dead  longer  than  others,  as  Huxley  once  said,  and  must 
be  studied  in  connection  with  living  organisms  and  with 
geology.  The  student  should  therefore  seek  those  uni- 
versities where  geology,  and  especially  historical  geology, 
is  given  much  attention,  and  where  also  botany  and 
zoology  in  all  their  branches  are  well  represented.  Per- 
haps there  is  no  university  in  France,  and  few  if  any  in 
all  Europe,  where  all  these  requirements  are  better  met 
than  in  Paris.  Of  the  eighteen  chairs  in  the  Natural 
Sciences  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  one  is  as- 
signed to  Palaeontology;  its  present  incumbent  is  Boule, 
well  known  for  his  work  in  anthropology  and  palaeontology, 
more  especially  vertebrate  palaeontology.  In  the  Uni- 
versity, under  the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  a  course  in  palaeon- 
tology is  given  byTHEVENiN,  author  of  notable  works  in 
both  invertebrate  and  vertebrate  palaeontology,  but 
especially  the  latter. 

There  are  other  universities  in  France  where  palaeon- 
tology is  taught  as  a  distinct  science,  and  where  the 
student  may  find  better  conditions  for  special  studies; 
in  the  final  work  it  is  often  the  teacher  who  counts  more 
than  anything  else.  Courses  in  palaeontology  are  given 
at  Caen  by  Bigot,  at  Grenoble  by  Kilian,  and  at  Lille 
by  Bertrand.  But  there  is  no  place,  we  believe,  where 
he  will  find  greater  encouragement  in  his  early  studies 
than  Paris. 


I30  GEOLOGY 

From  there  he  -^-ill  easily  find  opportunity  to  inspect 
the  institutions  and  museums  of  other  cities,  and  to  \isit 
the  numerous  localities  in  France  where  the  deposits  of 
prehistoric  times  are  so  especially  abundant  and  cele- 
brated. In  vertebrate  palaeontology  many  famous  fossils 
have  been  described  from  the  Carboniferous  and  Lower 
Permian  rocks  of  Autun,  the  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  of 
northern  France,  to  the  Eocene  of  Paris,  Rheims^  Aix, 
Soissons,  the  famous  Ohgocene  of  Quercy,  the  Miocene  of 
theDept.  AUier,  St.-Gerand-le-Puy,  Soissons,  and  elsewhere. 
One  need  not  add  that  the  Paris  Basin,  of  early  Cenozoic 
age,  was  first  made  famous  by  Cu\'ier.  Li  Anthropology 
no  name  is  more  eminent  perhaps  than  that  of  Boucher 
DE  Perthes,  who  first  reall}^  demonstrated  the  existence 
of  fossil  man.  And  the  names  of  Quatrefages,  Lartet, 
Serres,  and  Topinard,  are  but  little  less  so.  But  at 
this  point  we  enter  a  field  more  fully  described  already 
in  the  Chapter  on  Anthropology, 


History 


History 


American  students  do  not  need  to  be  reminded  at 
length  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  contribution  of 
France  to  the  modern  study  of  history.  To  the  age  of 
erudition  France  contributed  the  labors  of  the  great 
Benedictines  and  of  pre-eminent  individuals  of  the  type 
of  Du  Cange,  Cujas,  Scaliger,  and  Casaubon.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  it  took  the  lead  in  the  application 
of  general  ideas  to  history  in  the  works  of  Montesquieu 
and  Voltaire.  A  century  later  it  had  its  brilliant 
group  of  hterary  historians,  represented  by  Renan, 
Taine,  and  Michelet.  It  founded  Egyptology,  and  pro- 
duced the  greatest  of  recent  mediaevalists  in  Leopold 
Delisle.  It  has  taken  a  notable  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sciences  auxiliary  to  history,  in  the  pUbHca- 
tion  of  great  collections  of  sources,  and  in  the  main- 
tenance of  schools  and  the  encouragement  of  explora- 
tion in  the  remoter  portions  of  the  earth.  At  the  same 
time,  amid  the  vast  accumulations  of  historical  detail, 
French  historians  have  not  lost  their  sense  of  proportion 
or  their  interest  in  the  larger  aspects  of  history;  without 
sacrificing  thoroughness  of  research  or  finish  of  work- 
manship, they  have  also  preserved  qualities  of  clearness, 
order,  and  Hterary  skill  which  are  characteristically  French. 

Fields  of  Instniction.  French  universities  offer  a 
wide  range  of  instruction  in  the  history  of  every  period 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  C.  H.  Haskins,  Harvard  University; 
J.  A.  James,  Northwestern  University;  A.  C.  McLaughlin,  University 
of  Chicago;  D.  C.  Munro,  Princeton  University;  J.  T.  Shotwell, 
Columbia  University. —  Ed.] 

133 


134  HISTORY 

and  of  most  parts  of  the  world,  as  well  as  in  a  large 
number  of  related  fields.  History  is  there  conceived 
in  a  broad  and  liberal  spirit,  with  no  exaggerated  em- 
phasis upon  poHtical  details  or  special  "interpretations." 
Less  attention  than  is  usually  the  case  in  the  United 
States  is  given  to  economics  and  political  science  and 
to  their  relations  to  history,  the  instruction  in  these 
subjects  being  confined  for  the  most  part  to  the  faculties 
of  law.  Legal  history,  however,  receives  more  emphasis 
in  France  than  with  us,  and  law  professors  (such  as 
FouRNiER,  GiRARD,  Caillemer,  and  others)  have  much 
to  offer  to  students  of  history.  Certain  other  aspects  of 
history  receive  their  due  more  fully  in  French  than  in 
American  universities,  or,  in  some  cases,  than  anywhere 
else.  This  is  notably  true  of  geography,  which  in  the 
French  programs  is  brought  into  a  close  and  at  times 
even  artificial  connection  with  history;  of  archaeology 
and  the  history  of  art,  studied  in  the  midst  of  a  great 
wealth  of  illustrative  material  at  Paris;  and  of  the  history 
of  religions,  represented  at  the  College  de  France  by  Loisy, 
and  at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  fitudes  by  a  faculty  of 
seventeen,  unequalled  in  number  or  quality  at  any  other 
center  of  learning  in  the  world.  Church  history  in  the 
state  universities  is  taught  only  as  a  part  of  general 
history  and  the  history  of  religions;  but  courses  of  the 
more  conventional  type  are  given  in  the  private  facul- 
ties of  theology,  both  Catholic  and  Protestant. 

In  Ancient  History,  Paris  has  Jullian,  whose 
''Histoire  de  la  Gaule"  is  a  synthesis  of  a  vast  number 
of  special  studies  in  the  field  of  history,  philology,  and 
archaeology;  Bouche-Leclerc,  whose  manual  of 
Roman  institutions  has  served  a  generation  of  scholars; 
Block,  Glotz  (on  Greek  law),  Grebaut;  Gsell,  the 
historian  of  Domitian  and  of  Northern  Africa;  in  archaeol- 
ogy  and   epigraphy,   Babelon,   Collignon,   Foucart, 


ERNEST  LAVISSE  (1842-) 


HISTORY  135 

Haussoullier,  Heron  de  Villefosse,  Holleaux,  and 
Cagnat;  and  a  number  of  scholars  in  the  fields  of  Semitic 
history,  ancient  religion,  and  early  Christianity.  In  the 
provincial  universities,  ancient  history  is  represented  by 
Radet  at  Bordeaux,  Besnier  at  Caen,  Homo  at  Lyon, 
Jouguet  at  Lille,  Laurent  at  Nancy,  Clerc  at  Aix, 
and  Lecrivain  at  Toulouse. 

In  the  History  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  French  uni- 
versities are  excellently  equipped.  At  Paris  one  may 
study  under  Bemont,  editor  of  the  "Revue  Historique" 
and  an  admirable  teacher,  who  has  long  been  one  of  the 
world's  leaders  in  the  study  of  English  history;  Diehl, 
the  eminent  writer  on  Byzantine  history  and  Byzantine 
art;  Ferdinand  Lot,  whose  studies  have  remade  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  French  history  in  the  period  of  the 
Carolingians  and  their  immediate  successors;  Poupardin 
and  Thevenin  on  the  early  Middle  Ages;  Peister 
and  Jordan  on  the  later  period ;  and  Flach  on  the  history 
of  institutions.  All  the  courses  of  the  Ecole  des  Chartes 
are  of  interest  to  the  mediaevalist,  notably  the  work 
of  its  learned  and  helpful  director,  Maurice  Prou.  On 
the  side  of  art  and  archaeology,  the  supreme  achievements 
of  mediaeval  France  can  be  studied  under  Enlart, 
author  of  the  indispensable  "Manuel  d'archeologie 
frangaise,"  and  Male,  the  authority  on  mediaeval  sculp- 
ture. The  mediaevalists  of  the  provincial  universities 
include  Halphen  and  Fliche  at  Bordeaux;  Prentout 
at  Caen;  Guiraud  at  Besangon;  Stoutf  at  Dijon; 
Brehier  at  Clermont;  Gay  at  Lille;  Kleinclausz  at 
Lyon;  Parisot  at  Nancy;  See  at  Rennes;  Calmette 
and  Galabert  at  Toulouse. 

In  Modern  History,  perhaps  the  most  distinguished 
French  professor  in  active  service  (Lavisse  having  now 
retired)  is  Aulard,  who  through  his  own  work  and  that 
of  his  disciples  has  remade  the  history  of  the  French 


136  HISTORY 

Revolution.  Others  of  note  at  Paris  are  Bourgeois, 
the  historian  of  diplomacy,  Denis  for  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  Seignobos  for  historical  method  and 
general  topics.  More  special  courses  are  offered  by 
Bernard,  Bloch,  Cultru,  Debidour,  Revon,  and 
Reuss,  and  work  in  diplomatic  history  is  given  by 
Bourgeois  and  others  at  the  Ecole  des  Sciences  Poli- 
tiques.  In  provincial  universities  there  should  be  men- 
tioned Hauser  and  Febvre  at  Dijon;  Boissonnade  and 
Carre  at  Poitiers;  Desdevises  du  Dezert  at  Clermont; 
Blanchard  at  Grenoble;  Gaefarel  at  Aix;  Mathiez  at 
Besanfon;  Weill  at  Caen;  Marie jol  and  Waddington 
at  Lyon;  Sagnac  and  St.  Leger  at  Lille;  Parisot  at 
Nancy;  Gachon  and  Bourrilly  at  MontpeUier;  Dumas 
at  Toulouse;  and   Courteault  at  Bordeaux. 

Institutions.  The  natural  center  for  historical  stu- 
dents is  the  Faculty  of  Letters  at  Paris,  generally  known 
as  the  Sorbonne,  with  which  the  courses  of  the  Ecole 
Normale  (formerly  reserved  exclusively  for  its  own 
students)  are  now  merged.  Historical  instruction  is 
given  by  formal  lectures  (open  to  the  public,  and  serving 
as  excellent  examples  of  the  art  of  presentation);  by 
private  courses  and  discussions;  and  by  exercises  for 
the  training  of  future  teachers. 

To  many,  the  opportunities  of  the  Sorbonne,  with 
its  nineteen  lecturers  on  history,  will  appear  sufficient. 
American  students,  however,  accustomed  to  the  com- 
parative simplicity  and  centraHzation  of  university 
organization  in  the  United  States,  need  to  have  their  at- 
tention directed  to  the  great  number  of  special  schools 
and  institutes  outside  of  the  central  faculties  of  letters, 
science,  law,  and  medicine.  Those  most  closely  con- 
nected with  the  study  of  history  are  the  College  de 
France,  which  maintains  important  courses  of  lectures 


HISTORY  137 

in  convenient  proximity  to  the  Sorbonne;  the  Ecole 
Coloniale;  the  Ecole  d 'Anthropologic;  the  Ecole  du 
Louvre;  the  Institut  Catholique  de  Paris;  the  Ecole 
Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes;  the  Ecole  des  Chartes; 
and  the  Ecole  Libre  des  Sciences  Politiques.  For  the 
majority  of  students  the  three  last-named  are  the  most 
important. 

The  historical  sections  of  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes, 
now  housed  in  the  buildings  of  the  Sorbonne,  offer 
advanced  instruction  in  the  form  of  a  wide  variety  of 
seminary  and  special  courses.  The  work  is  open  to  all, 
without  distinction  of  age,  degree,  or  nationality,  who 
are  willing  to  take  active  part  in  the  exercises  and  can 
satisfy  the  instructor  of  their  competence.  Beyond  this 
there  are  no  conditions  as  to  admission  and  no  restric- 
tions on  the  number  and  choice  of  courses.  There  is 
no  fixed  curriculum;  those  who  have  been  in  attend- 
ance three  years  and  present  a  satisfactory  thesis  receive 
a  diploma  but  no  degree.  The  high  quality  of  the  theses 
is  seen  in  the  imposing  "Bibliotheque  de  1 'Ecole  des 
Hautes  Etudes,"  a  series  of  historical  and  philological 
monographs  which  comprises  more  than  two  hundred 
volumes. 

The  Ecole  des  Chartes  is  a  special  school  for  the  train- 
ing of  archivists  and  librarians  for  the  public  service. 
It  embraces  the  whole  period  of  French  history  down 
to  1789,  with  special  emphasis  upon  the  Middle  Ages. 
It  offers  instruction  in  palaeography,  diplomatics, 
archaeology,  Romance  philology,  history  of  French 
law  and  institutions,  sources  of  French  history,  and 
organization  of  libraries  and  archives.  The  curriculum 
covers  three  years,  and  the  number  of  regular  pupils 
is  limited,  but  qualified  outsiders  are  admitted  to  the 
courses.  The  school  has  a  long  and  honorable  tradition 
in  the  history  of  French  scholarship  and  has  served  as  a 


138  HISTORY 

model  for  similar  institutions  in  Vienna  and  Florence. 
Its  alumni  publish  an  important  historical  journal,  the 
"Bibliotheque  de  I'Ecole  des  Chartes." 

The  Ecole  Libre  des  Sciences  Politiques  is  a  private 
institution,  occupying  quarters  in  the  Rue  St.  Guil- 
laume,  about  fifteen  minutes'  walk  from  the  Sorbonne. 
It  was  established  in  1871,  primarily  for  the  purpose 
of  fitting  young  men  for  the  higher  branches  of  the  civil 
service,  and  its  organization  and  character  are  deter- 
mined by  the  examinations  of  the  various  government 
departments  for  which  it  prepares.  Economics  and 
political  science  naturally  predominate,  but  attention 
is  given  to  recent  history,  especially  on  the  diplomatic 
and  constitutional  sides.  The  standing  of  the  school 
is  indicated  by  the  names  of  its  successive  directors, 
BouTMY,  Anatole  Leroy-Beaulieu,  and  d'Eichthal, 
and  by  its  publication,  now  known  as  the  "Revue  des 
Sciences  Politiques." 

Libraries,  Archives,  and  Museums.  The  historical 
resources  of  Paris  are  greatly  increased  by  the  Biblio- 
theque  Nationale  and  the  A^arious  archives  and  museums. 
The  Bibliotheque  Nationale  has  the  largest  body  of 
printed  books  in  the  world,  and  unrivalled  collections  of 
manuscripts  and  maps.  Of  the  various  depositories  of 
unpublished  documents,  the  most  important  for  the 
American  student  are  the  Archives  Nationales,  under 
the  enlightened  direction  of  Charles  V.  Langlois,  the 
Archives  des  Affaires  Etrangeres,  and  the  Archives  de 
la  Marine.  The  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington 
has  nearly  completed  an  elaborate  guide  to  the  mate- 
rials for  American  history  in  these  and  other  French 
collections.  For  daily  use  the  library  of  the  Sorbonne 
is  well  equipped  and  well  administered,  with  the  library 
of  Ste.-Genevieve  close  at  hand;  and  the  special  schools 


HISTORY  139 

also  have  useful  libraries  of  reference.  Paris  is  especially 
rich  in  museums  of  historical  interest,  notably  the 
unique  riches  of  the  Louvre,  the  Musee  de  Cluny,  the 
museum  of  Comparative  Sculpture  at  the  Trocadero, 
and  the  Musee  Carnavalet,  where  the  history  of  Paris 
from  the  earliest  times  is  unrolled  before  the  visitor. 
Finally,  Paris  itself  is  full  of  history,  from  the  baths  of 
the  Emperor  Julian  to  the  memorials  of  the  present  war, 
and  constitutes  an  unfailing  source  of  inspiration  to  the 
intelligent  student. 

Provincial  Universities.  The  provincial  universities 
naturally  offer  fewer  opportunities  than  Paris,  but  their 
faculties  comprise  eminent  scholars  and  teachers,  com- 
petent in  many  cases  to  direct  work  in  important  his- 
torical fields  outside  of  the  history  of  France.  Several 
of  these  universities  have  special  chairs  of  local  or  regional 
history,  and  they  all  afford  an  excellent  introduction  to 
French  life  and  thought. 

On  the  whole  it  is  the  advanced  student  of  history, 
and  not  the  beginner,  who  will  derive  most  advantage 
from  a  sojourn  in  France,  and  especially  in  Paris.  The 
immature  youth,  who  has  not  yet  secured  a  good  grasp 
of  the  essential  facts  of  history,  who  has  not  received 
some  substantial  training  in  investigation,  and  has  not 
some  clear  ideas  concerning  the  nature  of  historical 
study  and  the  reasons  why  he  is  pursuing  it — a  man 
of  this  sort  is  ill  prepared  to  work  wisely  amid  the  mul- 
tiplicity of  special  courses  and  the  manifold  distractions 
of  the  French  capital.  Thanks  to  the  rapid  development 
of  American  universities  in  the  past  thirty  years,  it  is 
no  longer  necessary  to  cross  the  Atlantic  in  order  to  begin 
one's  historical  apprenticeship,  or  even,  in  some  lines, 
in  order  satisfactorily  to  complete  it;  and  there  can  be 


I40  HISTORY 

no  question  that  the  proportion  of  those  who  pursue  their 
entire  graduate  course  abroad  has  much  decreased.  Their 
place  is  being  taken  by  a  growing  number  of  mature 
students — professors  on  leave,  traveling  fellows,  newly- 
made  doctors,  and  others — who  desire  to  continue  work 
already  well  begun  here.  During  their  residence  abroad 
these  men  will  no  doubt  increase  their  stock  of  historical 
information  and  .  learn  valuable  lessons  in  historical 
method.  But  their  greatest  profit  will  come  from  access 
to  great  collections  of  historical  material,  from  the  stimulus 
of  contact  with  new  teachers  and  new  ideas,  and  from 
first-hand  knowledge  of  the  monuments  of  the  European 
past  and  the  life  of  the  European  present.  To  such 
students  France  offers  a  warm  welcome  and  a  wide 
opportunity. 


Law 


JJ:AN    DOMAl  . 

h't::it  .ill  /i.'i/.iii  /W.ri.i-.t',-  (  /ri-iii ,'rl/  ,'rt-.'/iiwr,/iii-,,iiil<1u-    \ 


JEAN  DO.MAT  (1625-1696) 


Law 


The  learned  and  systematic  study  of  law,  though 
never  entirely  broken  off  in  the  Middle  Ages,  begins 
virtually  for  the  modern  world  with  the  revival  of  the 
study  of  Roman  Law  under  Irnerius  at  the  University 
of  Bologna,  in  the  second  half  of  the  looos  A.  D.  From 
Italy  germinated  the  subsequent  growth  of  legal  science 
in  other  countries.  After  four  centuries,  when  the 
schools  of  the  Glossators  and  the  Commentators  had 
successively  risen  and  fallen  in  that  country,  the  primacy 
in  legal  studies  passed  to  France,  which  gave  to  the 
brilliant  Italian  Humanist,  Alciat,  a  home  at  Avignon, 
in  1 518,  and  afterwards  at  Bourges.  "  Jurisprudentia 
romana,"  said  the  Englishman  Duck  in  1650,  "si  apud 
alias  gentes  extincta  esset,  apud  solos  Gallos  reperiri 
posset."  The  "mos  Gallicus"  had  become  the  fashion 
in  the  juristic  world;  and  for  two  centuries  France 
held  this  European  primacy,  under  Cujas,  Doneau, 
Baxjdouin,  Dumoulin,  Brisson,  Douaren,  Godefroi, 
and  Hotman.  By  that  time  legal  science  had  become 
more  nationalized.  Every  country  of  Western  Europe 
was  developing  its  jurists. 

In  the  seventeenth  and  the  eighteenth  centuries 
France's  great  task  was  the  complex  one  of  consolidating 
and  nationalizing  its  own  composite  body  of  law.  The 
labors  of  Domat,  d'Aguesseau,  Lamoignon,  Colbert, 
PoTHiER,  and  others  of  that  period,  and  the  commercial 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  J.  H.  Beale,  Harvard  University;  L.  B. 
Register,  University  of  Pennsylvania;  Munroe  Smith,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity; J.  H.  Wigmore,  Northwestern  University. —  Ed.] 

143 


144  LAW 

and  procedural  legislation  under  Louis  XIV,  prepared 
the  way  for  the  grand  results  of  the  Napoleonic  codifi- 
cation; and  the  pohtical  philosophies  of  Montesquieu 
and  Rousseau  initiated  a  world-influence  which  has  not 
yet  ceased. 

The  promulgation  of  the  Napoleonic  Codes  (Civil, 
Penal,  Commercial,  Criminal,  Procedural)  between  1804 
and  1 8 10,  was  the  greatest  legal  fact  of  the  first  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  These  Codes  represented 
the  legal  side  of  the  vast  social  and  political  revolution 
of  ideas  in  the  Western  world;  and  they  belted  the  globe 
with  their  influence.  Not  only  many  European  countries, 
but  almost  all  the  Latin-American  States,  used  the 
Codes  in  framing  their  own  legislation.  In  the  stimulus 
given  by  them  indirectly  in  many  departments  of  law, 
the  Napoleonic  Codes  continued  to  be  dominant  legal 
factors  until  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  method  of  textual  commentary,  based  on  the  fixed 
categories  of  the  Codes,  absorbed  most  of  the  energies 
of  French  jurists  during  the  first  three  quarters  of  the 
century ;  and  these  Commentaries  are  still  in  common  use 
even  in  foreign  States  (like  Latin  America,  Louisiana, 
and  Quebec)  which  had  based  their  legislation  on  the 
French  Code. 

But  changed  social  and  political  conditions  raised 
new  problems  and  shifted  the  emphasis  laid  on  older  and 
persistent  needs.  The  spread  of  the  Historical  School 
(championed  from  Germany  by  Savigny  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  century)  and  the  interest  in  historical  and 
comparative  studies  created  by  Sir  Henry  Maine,  Fustel 
de  Coulanges,  and  Albert  Post;  the  expanding  claims  of 
philology,  archaeology,  psychology,  anthropology,  and 
other  sciences;  the  development  of  social  philosophies  in 
France  and  elsewhere;  the  growth  of  commercial,  indus- 
trial, and  maritime  interests;  and  the  increased  attention 


LAW  145 

paid  to  international  law  and  administrative  law  —  all 
these  influences  helped  to  open  new  fields  of  investiga- 
tion outside  of  the  Civil  Code. 

With  this  shifting  of  emphasis,  the  last  quarter  of  the 
century  began  to  see  active  attention  paid  to  the  other 
and  now  dominant  fields  of  legal  interest.  During  the 
last  forty  or  fifty  years,  and  increasingly  so  in  that  period, 
every  department  of  the  world's  legal  thought  has  been 
represented  in  France  by  master  minds  in  the  university 
chairs  and  by  treatises  embodying  the  most  approved 
methods  and  original  results  in  legal  research. 

In  Latin  America  and  in  some  European  countries 
(such  as  Belgium,  Greece,  and  Roumania),  the  study  of 
the  French  Codes  is  the  study  of  their  source-law.  But 
for  American  students,  no  country's  law,  except  that  of 
England,  presents  such  a  direct  reason  for  pursuing  its 
advanced  study  abroad.  Technical  law  is  essentially 
local;  its  materials  are  largely  the  legislation  and  practice 
of  each  country.  In  this  respect,  legal  science  differs 
from  (let  us  say)  mathematics  or  zoology. 

Nevertheless,  law  has  its  universal  aspects,  and  they 
are  grov/ing  with  each  decade.  Among  the  important 
topics  which  thus  have  an  extra-national  value  and 
interest  for  the  legal  scholar  are  Roman  Law,  Compara- 
tive Law  and  Legislation,  Legal  History,  Philosophy  of 
Law,  Constitutional  and  Administrative  Law,  Interna- 
tional Law,  Criminology  and  Criminal  Law. 

In  all  of  these  fields,  France  offers  interesting  and 
valuable  opportunities  for  university  study  under  the 
most  accomplished  masters. 

But  before  noting  the  instruction  offered  in  these 
particular  subjects,  a  few  words  may  be  offered  regard- 
ing some  other  features  of  French  law  interesting  to 
the  American  lawyer. 


146  LAW 

One  of  these  is  the  splendid  professional  tradition 
dominant  in  French  courts  of  justice.^  The  position  of 
the  advocate,  in  courage,  independence,  professional 
privilege,  and  fidelity  to  his  client,  is  comparable  only 
to  that  of  our  own  professional  predecessors  in  England, 
Ireland,  Scotland,  and  our  own  country.  The  judges, 
having  come  up  to  the  Bench  from  the  Bar,  as  in  England 
and  America,  have  shared  this  spirit  of  professional 
independence.  No  other  country  is  as  notable  as 
France  in  this  common  trait.  Four  times  in  French 
legal  history  has  the  entire  Bar  resigned  its  functions, 
and  left  the  courts  without  lawyers,  rather  than  submit 
to  the  arbitrary  dictation  of  princes  and  politicians.  The 
glorious  incidents  that  are  treasured  in  our  professional 
annals  find  their  parallels  in  all  periods  of  the  French  Bar. 
If  we  are  proud  for  this  reason  of  the  names  of  Coke,  of 
Mansfield,  of  Erskine,  of  Brougham,  of  Denman,  of  Otis, 
of  Hamilton,  of  Henry,  of  Choate,  France  too  has  its  tradi- 
tions,—  of  Talon,  exiled  by  the  crafty  Cardinal  Mazarin 
for  resisting  an  unjust  decree;  of  Servin,  who  fell  dead 
while  uttering  a  similar  protest  in  the  presence  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu  and  Louis  XIII;  of  Elie  de  Beaumont,  whose 
memoir  against  the  unjust  execution  of  Calas-  was  read 
throughout  Europe  and  led  to  Voltaire's  famous  diatribe 
against  the  criminal  law;  of  Bellart,  who  defended  many  of 
the  victims  of  the  Terror,  before  the  most  bloodthirsty 
Tribunal  the  world  has  ever  seen;  of  Malesherbes,  who 
dared  to  act  as  counsel  for  the  unfortunate  Louis  XVI  be- 
fore the  Convention,  and  himself  met  his  client's  fate  at  the 
guillotine  two  years  later;  of  Bonnet,  who  defied  Napoleon 
in  defending  General  Moreau ;  of  Berryer,  who  defended  the 

^  As  far  back  as  Juvenal's  day,  Gaul  was  famous  throughout  the 
Empire  for  its  lawyers:  "  Gallia  causidicos  docuit  facunda  Britannos" 
(Satire  xv,  1. 1 1 1) ;  "  Accipiat  te  Gallia  vcl  potius  nutricula  causidicorum 
Africa,  si  placuit  mercedem  imponcre  linguae"  (id.  vii,  1.  147). 


JEAN  BRISSAUD  (1854-1904) 


LAW  147 

future  Napoleon  III  on  a  charge  of  treason  against  Louis 
Philippe;  and  of  Captain  Dreyfus'  courageous  counsel, 
Labori,  whose  recent  death  the  two  Republics  lament. 
These  traditions,  continuous  over  five  centuries,  are  not 
without  meaning  to  the  American  student  of  law.  They 
impress  themselves  on  the  whole  system  of  law  and  justice. 
A  country  which  possesses  and  prizes  such  traditions  of  the 
Bar  is  one  which  offers  the  Anglo-American  student  an  in- 
spiration congenial  and  fruitful  to  his  professional  studies. 
Another  feature  worth  recalling  —  intangible,  per- 
haps, but  real  —  is  the  rich  variety  of  legal  reminiscences 
that  meet  the  visitor  at  every  spot  in  France,  and  help 
to  arouse  interest  in  the  history  and  romance  of  the  law. 
Every  epoch  of  law  here  purveys  for  him  something  of 
its  sentiment.  In  Paris,  he  may  linger  before  the  veritable 
pillar  of  Hammurabi's  Code,  four  thousand  years  old. 
In  the  South  and  in  the  museums  and  libraries  of  Paris 
he  may  trace,  in  manuscripts  and  monuments,  the  vast 
influx,  in  a  later  epoch,  of  the  great  system  of  Roman 
law,  as  it  spread  over  Celtic  Gaul.  In  the  next  great 
epoch,  the  revival  of  Roman  law  a  thousand  years  later, 
he  finds  everywhere,  south  of  the  Loire,  the  reminiscences 
of  the  world-jurists  of  the  day, —  at  Toulouse,  where 
Coras  lectured  to  4000  hearers;  at  Avignon  and  at 
Valence,  where  Alciat  brought  the  new  law-learning  from 
Italy  four  centuries  ago;  and  at  Bourges,  where  Cujas 
taught,  at  whose  renowned  name  (Hallam  tells  us)  the 
law  students  of  Germany  were  accustomed  to  take  off 
their  hats;  and  where  also  the  great  Hotman  lectured, 
who  once  said  that  our  Littleton's  classical  treatise  on 
"Tenures"  was  "incondite,  absurde,  et  inconcinne 
scriptum,"  and  was  thereupon  pilloried  by  our  patriotic, 
irascible  Coke  ("Stultum  est  absurdas  opiniones  refel- 
lere.")  In  Normandy,  at  Rouen,  he  may  enter  the 
superb  Court  House,  the  oldest  building  in  Europe  (now 


148  LAW 

that  Westminster  Hall  is  deserted  by  the  judges)  where 
justice  has  been  dispensed  continually  since  its  erection; 
and  at  Caen,  the  home  of  William  the  Conqueror,  he 
may  see  the  manuscript  of  the  Custom  of  Normandy, 
of  which  English  law  for  a  time  was  a  branch  only.  In 
Brittany,  at  Treguier,  he  may  pay  homage  at  the  shrine 
of  Yves,  the  patron  saint  of  our  profession,  the  only 
lawyer  ever  canonized  ("Advocatus  sed  non  latro,  res 
miranda  populo");  and  at  Rennes,  for  modern  flavor, 
he  may  visit  the  court-room  where  the  second  trial  of 
Captain  Dreyfus  took  place,  the  world's  most  famous 
trial  for  half  a  century  past.  At  Bordeaux,  he  may  see 
the  home  and  the  statue  of  Montesquieu,  whose  philoso- 
phy of  law  and  government  is  still  embodied  in  the 
American  Constitution;  and  at  Toulouse,  he  finds.  Sir 
Thomas  Smith  composed  his  "Commonwealth  of  Eng- 
land," by  two  centuries  a  precursor  of  Sir  William 
Blackstone's  "Commentaries."  At  St.  Omer,  where  the 
great  College  of  the  Jesuits  once  flourished,  he  comes 
upon  the  traces  of  our  famous  Irish  advocate  and  cross- 
examiner,  Daniel  O'Connell,  who  was  there  educated. 
At  Bourges,  Scotch  lawyers  once  studied.  At  Clermont, 
he  finds  the  birthplace  of  Domat,  whose  works  are  stiU 
cited  by  our  Supreme  Court  of  Louisiana. —  And  so  he 
may  continue,  marking  off  in  his  pilgrimage  at  every 
spot  some  significant  event  or  personage  that  has  con- 
tributed to  the  world's  movement  inlaw. 

This  "sentimental  journey,"  it  is  true,  may  not 
directly  assist  his  technical  proficiency;  and  it  may  not 
appeal  to  all  temperaments.  But  for  the  American  stu- 
dent abroad  one  of  the  greatest  gains  must  always  be 
the  sense  of  union  with  the  notable  events  and  persons 
of  the  past  in  his  chosen  field.  And  the  profession  of  the 
law  in  America  needs  to  become  less  insular  and  less 
narrow  in  its  outlook  on  the  present,  and  more  aware  of 


LAW  149 

the  continuity  of  all  legal  traditions  and  knowledge. 
The  future  American  jurist  who  spends  a  time  in  France 
may  be  assured  of  finding  there  the  most  varied  interest, 
and  the  most  lasting  inspiration  for  the  broadening  and 
deepening  of  his  professional  studies. 

Instruction  in  the  Universities.  It  remains  to  sum- 
marize the  specific  resources  for  university  instruction 
in  the  chief  subjects  of  general  interest. 

Roman  Law.  The  great  tradition  of  Ortolan's  name, 
whose  treatise  first  appeared  in  1827  ("Legislation 
romaine;  explication  historique  des  Instituts  de  Jus- 
tinien";  12th  ed.,  3  vols.,  1883),  is  worthily  maintained 
by  a  group  of  distinguished  scholars,  representing  every 
field  of  Roman  law  and  the  most  modern  methods  of 
archaeological  and  philological  research.  Among  them 
may  be  named  these:  P.  F.  Girard  (Paris),  the  veteran 
master,  one  of  the  two  or  three  living  scholars  who  re- 
ceive the  world's  homage  in  this  field;  his  *'Textes  de 
droit  romain"  and  "Manuel  ^lementaire  de  droit 
romain"  are  handbooks  in  many  countries;  Appleton 
(Lyon),  whose  principal  work  is  "La  propriete  preto- 
rienne"  (2  vols.,  1889);  Cuq  (Paris),  author  of  "Les  in- 
stitutions juridiques  des  Romains"  (2  vols.,  1902-1907), 
who  lectures  on  Roman  legal  history;  Jobbe-Duval 
(Paris),  author  of  "Etudes  sur  I'histoire  de  la  procedure 
chez  les  Romains"  (1896),  and  of  essays  on  the  history 
of  Continental  procedure,  who  lectures  on  the  Digest 
(or  Pandects,  as  the  current  French  usage  has  it);  Au- 
DiBERT  (Paris),  also  a  specialist  in  the  history  of 
Roman  law;  Meynial  (Paris),  professor  of  the  history 
of  Roman  and  French  law;  May  (Paris),  whose  "Ele- 
ments de  droit  romain"  has  gone  into  its  tenth  edition; 
HuvELiN  (Lyon),  whose  "Le  Furtum'*  (vol.  I,  1914), 


I50  LAW 

represents  a  lifetime's  labors  and  ranges  over  the  entire 
area  of  primitive  Roman  ideas ;  Collinet  (Lille) ,  author  of 
"  Etude  historiquesurle  droit  dejustinien  "  (vol.  1, 191 2); 
Thomas  (Toulouse),  whose  specialty  is  the  papyrology  of 
Roman  Law  in  Egypt;  Desserteaux  (Dijon),  author  of 
numerous  works  on  technical  Roman  law;  Monnier 
(Bordeaux),  whose  specialty  is  Byzantine  Roman  Law; 
Flach  (Paris),  whose  vast  authority  in  the  historical  field 
makes  him  a  specialist  in  medieval  Roman  law. 

Legal  History.  The  position  of  France  as  the  Western 
haven  of  mingling  racial  streams  of  immigration  and  con- 
quest —  Celtic,  Romanic,  Germanic  —  has  always  been 
a  stimulus  to  the  decipherer  of  historical  riddles  of  law. 
And  its  rich  collection  of  records  of  customary  law  has 
served  as  fertile  training  material  for  historical  scholars. 
The  notable  names  of  the  first  three-quarters  of  the 
nineteenth  century  —  Pardessus,  Ginoulhiac,  Labou- 
LAYE,  Laferriere,  Garsonxet,  Giraud,  Beugnot  — 
occupied  themselves  chiefly  with  the  critical  editing  of 
these  sources  (on  which,  indeed,  the  greater  number  of 
modern  scholars  are  still  laboring).  Then  came  a 
period  of  masters  who  devoted  themselves  to  works  of 
larger  scope;  and  this  period  now  continues.  The  earlier 
ones  (but  just  passed  off  the  stage)  include  Fustel  de 
CouLANGES  (a  contemporary  of  Sir  Henry  Maine's, 
and  almost  as  influential  in  his  ideas);  Glasson  (whose 
volumes  cover  the  legal  history  not  only  of  France  but 
also  of  England);  Tardif  (who  specially  worked  in 
Norman  law);  Esmein  (a  versatile  master  in  many 
fields);  Beaune  and  Viollet  (whose  works  have  each 
a  special  merit);  and  Brissaud,  who  was  perhaps  the 
greatest  modern  historian  of  law  in  any  country;  cer- 
tainly Maitland,  B runner,  and  Schupfer  (of  Rome) 
can  alone  be  mentioned  with  him. 


LAW  151 

Of  the  older  generation  of  masters  now  pursuing  their 
labors  these  may  be  mentioned  in  passing:  Foiirnier 
(Paris),  whose  specialty  is  the  history  of  mediaeval  Roman 
and  ecclesiastical  law;  Flach  (Paris),  whose  "Origines 
de  I'ancienne  France "  marks  his  special  interest  in  the 
history  of  public  law;  his  chair  is  that  of  the  Compara- 
tive History  of  Legal  Systems;  Jobbe-Duval  (Paris), 
one  of  whose  specialties  is  mediaeval  procedure. 

Among  those  masters  who  may  be  spoken  of  as  juniors, 
but  in  age  only,  not  in  achievement,  are  these:  Huvelin 
(Lyon),  whose  History  of  Commercial  Law  (now  in 
preparation)  will  take  the  place  of  Goldschmidt's  in  the 
coming  generation;  Lambert  (Lyon),  whose  interests 
extend  into  Comparative  Legal  History;  Caillemer 
(Grenoble),  whose  "History  of  Executors"  has  thrown 
much  light  on  English  law;  Declareuil  (Toulouse), 
whose  special  field  has  been  the  Frankish  law;  Genestal 
(Paris),  whose  principal  work  is  in  the  history  of  Canon 
laws;  Chenon,  Meynial,  and  Leeebvre  (Paris),  who 
represent  general  French  legal  history;  the  "Histoire 
du  droit  matrimonial  frangais"  (4  vols.,  1908-14),  by 
the  last-named  scholar,  is  still  unfinished;  Collinet 
(Lille),  who  besides  holding  the  chair  of  French  Legal 
History  is  an  authority  in  Roman  Law. 

The  Societe  d'Histoire  du  Droit  et  des  Institutions 
cultivates  specially  this  field.  In  the  chapter  on  History 
in  this  book  will  be  found  a  more  particular  account  of 
the  resources  available  for  research  in  History  generally. 

Comparative  Legal  History.  This  subject  (as  distin- 
guished from  Comparative  Contemporary  Legislation) 
naturally  is  linked  with  that  of  Roman  and  Western 
European  legal  history,  and  several  of  the  incumbents 
of  chairs  above  mentioned  deal  with  aspects  of  it  in  their 
treatises  and  courses.    But,  in  another  relation,  it  merges 


152  LAW 

into  the  History  of  Universal  Legal  Ideas,  or  Evolution 
of  Law;  and  the  cultivation  of  this  branch  of  learning 
has  gone  on  apace  in  France,  since  the  classic  days 
of  Sir  Henry  Maine  and  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  whose 
works,  appearing  about  the  same  time  in  the  '60s,  have 
passed  into  numerous  editions  in  many  languages  and 
have  set  going  a  world-wide  wave  of  ideas.  It  may  be 
said  that  Kohler,  in  Germany,  and  Dareste  (recently 
deceased)  in  France,  have  been  the  two  chief  inspirers 
of  research  in  this  field  in  the  past  generation.  But  the 
social,  economic,  and  anthropological  fields  are  here  so 
intimately  involved  that  much  valuable  work  has  been 
done  by  scholars  who  cannot  strictly  be  classed  as  jurists. 
In  France,  Paul  Gide,  Laveleye,  Letourneau,  Tarde, 
Arbois  de  Joxjbainville,  represent  the  general  literature 
of  the  past  generation  on  this  subject.  The  brothers 
Revillout,  with  their  prolific  works  on  Egyptian  and 
Babylonian  law,  gave  new  directions  to  the  zest  for 
general  ideas  in  this  field.  De  la  Grasserie  (recently 
deceased)  emphasized  its  sociologic  aspects. 

For  living  teachers,  no  one  stands  out  as  specially 
devoted  to  it;  the  several  aspects  must  be  sought  among 
the  specialists  in  history,  philology,  ethnology,  sociology, 
archaeology,  and  philosophy.  For  example,  Glotz 
(Paris),  in  Greek  law;  Durkheim  (Paris),  in  primitive 
reHgions;  Haussoulier  (Paris),  in  epigraphy;  Scheil 
(Paris) ,  in  Assyriology ,  are  powerfully  stimulating  the  com- 
parative treatment  of  legal  evolution  in  its  border  rela- 
tions with  philology,  religion,  economics,  and  sociology. 
There  is  also  a  special  ficole  d' Anthropologic  at  Paris. 

Comparative  Contemporary  Law.  This  field,  which 
sometimes  merges  into  the  former,  is  richly  represented 
in  French  learning.  The  Societe  de  Legislation  com- 
paree,  founded  in  1870  (the  oldest  of  its  kind)  pubHshes 


LAW  153 

an  "Annuaire  de  legislation  comparee,"  as  well  as  a 
"Bulletin";  and  the  Ministry  of  Justice  has  long  had  a 
Bureau,  the  Comite  de  legislation  etrangere,  which 
publishes  translations  of  the  important  foreign  codes. 
A  number  of  chairs  or  courses  are  especially  entitled 
"de  legislation  comparee,"  or  "de  droit  compare,"  such 
as  those  of  Capitant  (Paris),  Chavegrin  (Paris), 
Massigli  (Paris),  Flach  (Paris),  Lambert  (Lyon), 
Lyon-Caen  and  Thaller  (Paris),  with  more  or  less 
specializing  in  the  several  departments  of  civil,  criminal, 
commercial,  or  constitutional  law. 

Systems  of  Colonial  Legislation  naturally  receive  at- 
tention in  nearly  every  faculty  of  law.  Officials  of  the 
colonial  service  are  contributing  valuable  publications 
of  materials  on  Mohammedan,  Chinese,  and  African  law 
and  custom.  In  the  ficole  Coloniale  (Paris)  are  given 
courses  in  general  colonial  law,  in  the  law  of  China,  Indo- 
China,  Algeria,  Tunis,  occidental  and  equatorial  Africa, 
and  in  Mohammedan  law.  Industrial  Legislation  has 
now  become  a  subject  of  comparative  study.  Beside  the 
courses  under  the  Faculties  of  Law  by  Jay  and  Percerou 
(Paris),  Lescure  (Bordeaux),  Pic  (Lyon),  Berenger 
(Marseille),  and  others,  instruction  is  given  in  this 
subject  at  the  Conservatoire  National  des  Arts  et 
Metiers,  at  the  Ecole  Centrale  des  Arts  et  Manufactures, 
and  at  the  Ecole  de  Legislation  Professionelle.  The  Asso- 
ciation Internationale  pour  la  protection  legale  des  Tra- 
vailleurs  has  its  headquarters  at  Paris,  and  is  an  active 
stimulator  of  research. 

Legislative  Methods  are  coming  into  the  field  of  com- 
parative law.  The  necessity  for  re-casting  or  replacing 
the  century-old  Civil  Code  has  stimulated  a  number  of 
activities,  particularly  the  Societe  d'fitudes  Legislatives, 
a  unique  organization,  which  studies  the  Code  topically, 
and  through  separate  Committees  prepares  and  discusses 


154  LAW 

drafts  of  proposed  new  chapters  framed  in  the  light  of 
contemporary  needs  and  comparative  law.  The  Aca- 
demie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques  has  a  section 
for  Legislation,  which  conducts  lectures  and  debates. 
At  Toulouse,  the  Academic  de  Legislation  conducts 
debates  and  publishes  a  Recueil.  And  a  number  of 
prize  competitions  for  essays  are  devoted  especially  to 
the  subject  of  contemporary  legislation. 

The  rich  resources  available  for  legal  research  in  libraries 
and  archives  are  fully  set  forth  in  the  chapter  on  Political 
Science  in  this  book,  and  need  not  be  here  repeated. 

Philosophy  of  Law  and  Jurisprudence.  Neither  the 
analytic  jurisprudence  of  Austin,  made  dominant  by 
him  for  Anglo-America,  nor  the  metaphysical  philosophy 
of  law,  pursued  in  Germany  since  Kant's  time,  obtained 
much  footing  with  French  jurists  during  the  i8oos. 
Nor  have  the  universities  of  France,  any  more  than  those 
of  America,  included  courses  on  jurisprudence  and  phil- 
osophy of  law  as  a  formal  part  of  their  prescribed  cur- 
riculum. The  philosophy  of  law  was  left  to  the  philoso- 
phers,—  Comte,  Fourier,  Proudhon,  Fouillee. 

But  the  last  twenty -five  years  have  seen  a  remarkable 
growth  in  France  of  a  vigorous  interest  in  both  of  these 
allied  branches  of  study, —  chiefly  inspired  and  led  (so 
far  as  personal  influence  was  responsible)  by  the  eminent 
idealist  philosopher  Fouillee,  and  by  the  great  jurist 
Saleilles,,  whose  recent  death  is  lamented  in  many  de- 
partments of  legal  science.  A  host  of  younger  men  now 
cultivate  this  field  with  such  originahty  and  success 
that,  for  the  philosophy  of  law  of  the  coming  generation, 
the  French  systems  are  vital  for  every  American  student, 
—  the  more  so  as  they  are  the  product  of  a  democratic 
nation  whose  traditions,  experiences,  and  ideals  are 
germane  to  our  own. 


LAW  155 

Among  the  principal  contributors  now  occupying  uni- 
versity chairs  may  be  mentioned:  Beudant  (Grenoble), 
author  of  "Le  droit  individuel  et  TEtat"  (1891);  Char- 
MONT  (Montpellier),  author  of  "Le  droit  et  I'esprit 
democratique,"  and  "La  renaissance  du  droit  naturel"; 
Capitant  (Paris)  and  Planiol  (Paris),  whose  books, 
entitled  "Elementary  Treatise  on  Civil  Law,"  represent 
most  nearly  what  we  are  accustomed  to  term  "Ana- 
lytical Jurisprudence";  Duguit  (Bordeaux),  whose 
masterly  works  "Le  droit  social,  le  droit  individuel,  et 
la  transformation  de  I'Etat"  and  "Les  transformations 
generales  du  droit  civil"  have  recently  been  published 
(in  part)  in  American  translations,  together  with  repre- 
sentative parts  of  Charmont's  and  Demogue's  works; 
Geny  (Nancy),  whose  "Methode  d' interpretation  et 
sources  en  droit  privepositif"  (1899)  has  stirred  European 
philosophic  legal  thought  as  no  other  single  book  has 
done  since  von  Ihering's  "Der  Zweck  im  Recht";  De- 
MOGUE  (Lille),  author  of  *' Notions  fondamentales  de  droit 
prive"  (191 1),  which  has  instantly  been  recognized  as 
the  work  of  a  master;  Hauriou  (Toulouse),  author  of 
"Le  mouvement  social,"  and  of  "Principes  du  droit 
public"  (1909),  one  of  the  most  original  treatises  of  the 
time;  Lambert  (Lyon),  whose  work  bridges  the  gap 
between  comparative  law  and  general  jurisprudence; 
Larnaude  (Paris;  dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Law),  whose 
progressive  influence  in  this  field  is  comparable  to  that 
of  the  lamented  Saleilles. 

Nor  is  the  expanding  power  of  French  thought  in  this 
field  to  be  measured  by  a  few  names  in  the  principal 
chairs;  for  the  published  works  of  Richard  ("L'origine 
del'idee  du  droit"),  Michoud  ("La  theorie  de  la  person- 
nahte  morale"),  Cruet  ("La  vie  du  droit"),  Rolin 
("Prolegomenes  de  la  science  du  droit"),  Tanon,  chief 
justice  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  ("L'evolution  du  droit"); 


156  LAW 

Leroy  ("La  loi")j  and  others,  demonstrate  that  the 
entire  region  of  general  jurisprudence  and  philosophy 
of  law  is  being  cultivated  with  abundant  originality  and 
power  for  the  coming  generation. 

A  more  ample  view  of  the  scope  of  current  French 
work  on  these  subjects  is  obtainable  in  vol.  VII  of  the 
Modern  Legal  Philosophy  Series,  entitled  "Modern 
French  Legal  Philosophy"  (Boston,  1916). 

Criminal  Law.  Criminal  law  is  now  everywhere  be- 
coming recognized  as  dependent  on  Criminal  Science  in 
general  (or  Criminology),  and  thus  presents  many  com- 
mon problems  of  theory  and  method  in  all  countries. 
France's  contributions  to  Criminology  are  elsewhere  in 
this  volume  fully  treated  under  that  head.  It  is  enough 
here  to  note  that  the  study  of  Criminal  Law  itself  is  in 
France  fully  in  touch,  both  in  theory  and  in  legislative 
spirit,  with  the  forward  movement  of  the  last  half  cen- 
tury. 

The  French  Penal  Code  of  18 10  was  the  first  radical 
legislative  response  in  Europe  to  the  humanizing  revolu- 
tion of  opinion  led  by  Beccaria,  Howard,  and  Voltaire. 
Progress  in  theory  during  the  nineteenth  century  was 
followed  by  successive  legislative  reforms  in  all  fields; 
legislation  for  juvenile  offenders,  for  example,  was 
enacted  as  early  as  1875;  ^^^  release  on  parole,  in  1885; 
and  for  suspended  sentence,  in  1891.  In  the  subjects 
of  criminal  procedure,  of  indeterminate  sentence,  and  of 
revision  of  penal  definitions  generally,  discussion  still 
progresses.  The  student  will  find  in  France  as  in  America 
the  same  general  and  active  ferment  of  constructive 
inquiry,  experiment,  and  debate,  among  aU  interested 
groups.  The  scientific  and  literary  activity  outside  of 
the  Universities  would  make  a  long  bibliography,  and  indi- 
cates the  fertility  of  current  French  thought  in  this  field. 


LAW  157 

In  the  law  schools,  Criminal  Law  receives  in  general 
more  attention  than  in  any  American  law  school.  At 
Paris,  there  are  two  professors, — Gar^on,  who  has  anno- 
tated the  Code  Penal,  and  Le  Poittevin,  who  has 
annotated  the  Code  d'Instruction  Criminelle;  the  latter 
has  also  published  elaborate  practical  treatises  on  Crim- 
inal Procedure,  Police  Procedure,  and  Judicial  Records; 
both  give  alternately  a  course  in  Comparative  Criminal 
Law.  The  masterly  treatise  of  Saleilles  (recently 
deceased;  one  of  France's  most  famous  modern  jurists), 
on  "The  Individualization  of  Punishment,"  has  been 
translated  into  Enghsh  for  an  American  Committee,  in 
the  Modern  Criminal  Science  Series. 

At  Lyon  is  Garraud,  the  best  known  criminal  jurist 
of  France.  Enough  to  say  that  his  two  treatises  on 
Criminal  Law  and  Criminal  Procedure  (six  volumes 
each,  now  appearing  in  their  second  and  third  editions) 
are  the  most  nearly  perfect  of  their  kind  in  any  language. 
At  Bordeaux  is  Bonnecase;  at  Caen,  Degois;  at  Dijon, 
Roux;  at  Grenoble,  Guetat;  at  Lille,  Demogue;  at 
Rennes,  Chauveau;  at  Toulouse,  Magnol;  at  Mont- 
pellier,  Laborde,  who  offers  a  special  course  in  Criminal 
Procedure  and  Penal  Methods. 

International  Law  and  Public  Law.  The  general 
activities  and  the  university  instruction  in  these  two 
fields  are  so  fully  set  forth  in  the  chapter  on  PoHtical 
Science,  in  this  book,  that  a  repetition  here  is  needless. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  in  each  of  them  the  student  of  law 
will  find  the  most  extensive  and  helpful  opportunities. 

General  Legal  Subjects.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing 
subjects  of  supranational  interest,  the  American  student 
will  find  a  valuable  field  for  comparison  in  the  courses 
on  distinctively  national  law,  both  in  the  arrangement  of 


158  LAW 

the  curriculum  and  in  the  mode  of  teaching  and  study. 
In  two  main  respects  the  curriculum  differs  from  the 
accepted  American  plan, —  it  includes  more  of  political 
and  legal  science,  i.  e.,  non-private  law  subjects,  and  it 
makes  fewer  subdivisions  of  the  private  law.  For  example, 
the  three-year  curriculum  for  the  Licence  degree  at  Paris 
covers,  respectively,  six,  six,  and  eleven  courses;  of  these 
twenty-three  courses,  three  are  in  political  economy,  two 
in  Roman  law,  two  in  international  law,  three  in  public 
and  administrative  law,  one  in  history,  and  one  in  colonial 
legislation;  leaving  three  for  commercial  law,  one  for 
criminal  law,  two  for  civil  procedure,  and  five  for  civil  or 
private  law.  The  last  group  would  with  us  be  so  sub- 
divided as  to  form  at  least  two  thirds  of  the  curriculum. 
In  the  curriculum  for  the  Doctorate,  all  of  the  above 
subjects  are  pursued  in  advanced  topics,  with  fewer 
lecture  hours  and  with  opportunity  for  specialization. 
In  some  of  the  provincial  universities  (but  not  in  Paris), 
there  is  a  separate  Institut  Pratique  de  droit,  and  (in 
Paris  also)  an  Ecole  du  Notariat,  where  the  technical 
niceties  of  pleading,  practice,  and  conveyancing,  are 
specially  studied.  Thus  the  foreign  student  is  less 
likely,  under  the  regular  University  curriculum,  to  find 
the  local  practitioner's  point  of  view  as  prominently 
emphasized  as  it  is  in  most  American  schools. 

Methods  of  Instruction.  The  American  law  student, 
trained  in  the  case-system  of  study  and  the  Socratic  meth- 
od of  instruction,  finds  himself  in  the  French  law  school 
an  attendant  at  formal  lectures,  where  he  is  a  mere 
"auditeur."  The  size  of  classes  (especially  at  Paris), 
and  the  traditions  of  French  teaching,  have  not  encourag- 
ed the  close  contact  of  faculty  and  student  that  obtains 
in  the  best  American  schools  today.  This  may  be  at 
first  a  cause  of  disappointment,  and  even  of  discourage- 


LAW  159 

merit,  to  the  energetic  student.  But  it  should  rather  prove 
a  test  of  his  mettle.  The  problem  of  self-adjustment  to 
new  methods  and  materials  is  of  itself  valuable  to  the 
thinker.  And,  of  course,  to  the  earnest  and  talented 
aspirant,  personal  contact  with  the  most  eminent  profes- 
sors is  attainable. 

Perhaps  equal  in  value  to  the  acquirement  of  positive 
knowledge  are  the  influences  of  the  French  "milieu," 
scholastic,  public  and  private;  these,  if  the  student  be 
sensible  to  them,  must  inevitably  draw  him,  as  an  earnest 
partisan  on  one  or  the  other  side,  into  the  stimulating 
movements  which  are  characterizing  French  thought 
today. 

Finally  it  may  be  noted  that  the  French  genius  for 
formal  pubHc  expression  should  offer  to  the  receptive  Am- 
erican aspirant  a  stimulus  and  a  model,  such  as  would 
profit  both  the  practitioner  and  the  university  teacher  in 
America. 


Mathematics 


MATHEMATICS' 

The  study  of  Mathematics  has  always  made  a  special 
appeal  to  the  French  genius,  distinguished  by  its  fondness 
for  logic  and  its  striving  for  perfection  in  form.  Since 
the  time  of  Vieta,  Fermat,  Descartes,  and  Pascal, 
there  has  never  been  a  period  in  which  French  mathe- 
maticians have  not  held  a  commanding  position  in  their 
field.  In  particular,  during  the  great  epoch  of  173a- 
1820,  when  the  Calculus  and  its  applications  received 
their  formal  development,  it  has  been  well  said  that 
"the  scepter  of  Mathematics  was  in  French  hands." 
To  justify  this,  one  needs  mention  only  the  names  of 
Lagrange,  Laplace,  Legendre,  Poncelet,  and  Monge, 
among  a  host  of  others. 

Though  this  period  was  followed  by  one  somewhat  less 
brilliant,  especially  after  the  passing  of  Fourler  and 
Poisson;  yet  the  work  of  Cauchy  alone,  in  the  first 
three  decades  after  1820,  would  have  upheld  the  great 
tradition.  To  this  epoch  also  belong  Galois,  who  before 
his  death  at  twenty-one  had  discovered  principles  that 
recreated  modern  algebra,  and  Sturm  and  Liouville, 
whose  names  are  attached  to  fundamental  results  in 
algebra  and  the  theory  of  linear  differential  equations. 

To  Hermite  belongs  the  distinction  of  leading  the 
French  school  of  mathematicians  from  the  death  of 
Cauchy  till  the  rise  of  the  present  group,  who  may  well 
be    regarded    as   having   restored    the   preeminence    of 

H  Drafting  Committee:  D.  R.  Curtiss,  Northwestern  University; 
T.  F.  HoLGATE,  Northwestern  University;  E.  H.  Moore,  University  of 
Chicago;  E.  B.  Wilson,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. — Ed.] 

163 


i64  MATHEMATICS 

France  in  Mathematics.  He  was  in  a  special  sense  their 
master,  equally  great  as  teacher  and  scholar,  and,  in  the 
wide  field  he  covered,  typical  of  the  modern  school. 
Among  the  notable  contributors  of  this  period  was  Chasles. 

The  present  era  in  French  mathematics  may  be  said 
to  date  from  the  early  work  of  Darboux  and  Jordan,  in 
the  late  sixties  and  early  seventies.  In  rapid  succession 
appear  the  names  of  Picard,  Poincare,  Appell,  Pain- 
LEVE,  Goursat,  Hadamard,  and  Borel.  Nor  have  the 
achievements  of  the  still  younger  group  given  ground  to 
believe  that  successors  will  be  wanting.  The  brilliance 
of  the  modern  school  has  been  enhanced  by  the  broadness 
of  its  leaders'  achievements;  the  contributions  of  Picard, 
Poincare,  and  Hadamard,  for  example,  have  been  re- 
markable in  geometry,  algebra,  and  applied  mathematics, 
as  well  as  in  analysis.  The  latter  field  has,  however, 
been  perhaps  the  most  cultivated. 

No  account  of  recent  French  mathematics  can  be  com- 
plete which  fails  to  yield  its  tribute  to  the  genius  of 
Poincare.  At  his  death,  in  191 2,  it  was  the  universal 
verdict  that  he  must  be  considered  the  greatest  mathe- 
matician of  his  age. 

Mathematicians  of  Today  and  their  "Work.    It  has 

undoubtedly  been  true  for  many  years  that  the  group  of 
mathematicians  resident  in  Paris  was  the  most  distin- 
guished to  be  found  at  any  one  place  in  the  world,  and 
there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  this  situation  will  soon 
be  altered.  The  centralization  of  French  scientific 
activity  presents  distinct  advantages  to  the  mathematical 
student  from  abroad,  especially  to  the  man  of  more  mature 
type.  The  older  and  more  eminent  mathematicians  are 
grouped  in  Paris.  However,  many  of  the  provincial 
universities  have  on  their  faculties  one  or  more  men, 
usually  of  the  younger  scholars,  who  have  such  special 


HENRI  POINCARE  (1854-1912) 


MATHEMATICS 


MATHEMATICS  165 

knowledge  of  a  given  field  that  the  visiting  student  cannot 
afford  to  ignore  the  opportunity  of  working  with  them. 
Thus,  within  a  few  years  past  two  younger  men  as  well- 
known  as  BouTROUX  and  Frechet  were  to  be  found  at 
Poitiers;  and,  to  mention  but  one  other  name,  Baire 
was  at  another  provincial  university.  The  university 
of  Toulouse  has  always  had  a  strong  mathematical 
faculty. 

The  dean  of  French  mathematicians,  still  active,  is 
Darboux,  perhaps  the  most  distinguished  living  worker 
in  the  field  of  differential  geometry.  His  great  treatise 
is  the  standard  authority  on  that  subject.  In  spite  of 
the  demands  made  on  his  time  by  his  other  duties  (he  is, 
for  example,  permanent  secretary  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences),  he  continues  to  give  each  year  a  course  at  the 
Sorbonne  on  higher  geometry  that  no  visiting  student 
can  afford  to  miss.  It  would  be  worth  while  to  sit  under 
him,  if  only  to  absorb  something  of  his  great  charm  as  a 
lecturer.  ^ 

PiCARD  is  equally  noted  f^r  his  life  and  inspiration  in 
the  class-room;  he  is  one  of  the  few  men  who  are  great 
both  as  teachers  and  investigators.  For  nearly  forty 
years  his  contributions  to  the  theory  of  functions  and  to 
differential  equations  have  been  of  fundamental  im- 
portance. Many  of  them  have  been  summed  up  in  his 
great  "Traite  d'analyse,"  of  which  the  fourth  and  last 
volume  is  still  in  preparation,  and  in  the  two  volumes 
of  the  "Theorie  des  fonctions  algebriques  de  deux  vari- 
ables independantes."  The  field  represented  by  this 
last  work  has  of  late  years  especially  occupied  his  atten- 
tion. His  lectures  at  the  Sorbonne  share  with  Darboux's 
the  distinction  of  being  among  the  most  popular  under 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences. 

^  [We  regret  to  chronicle,  since  this  chapter  went  to  press,  the  death 
of  this  eminent  scientist. — Authors.] 


i66  MATHEMATICS 

Although  Appell  has  long  been  dean  of  the  Faculty 
of  Sciences  at  the  Sorbonne,  he  has  continued  to  give  a 
course  there  each  year.  His  contributions  to  analysis 
and  applied  mathematics  are  indicated  by  his  well-known 
volumes  on  algebraic  functions  and  their  integrals  (in 
collaboration  with  Goursat),  on  elliptic  functions, 
(jointly  with  Lacour),  and  especially  by  his  three-volume 
"Traite  de  mecanique  rationnelle."  He  has  been  espe- 
cially distinguished  as  a  teacher,  and  for  a  number  of 
years  gave  a  most  successful  course  in  the  Sorbonne  on 
general  mathematics  for  students  of  other  sciences;  this 
is  now  accessible  in  published  form.  In  191 5-16  he 
lectured  on  analytic  mechanics  and  celestial  mechanics. 

Goursat  has  long  covered  the  field  of  differential  and 
integral  calculus  at  the  Sorbonne.  His  lectures  have 
formed  the  basis  of  his  celebrated  "Cours  d'analyse," 
one  of  the  most  widely  used  modern  texts  in  its  field. 
Only  less  well-known  are  his  works  on  partial  differential 
equations  and  on  algebraic  functions,  while  his  frequent 
contributions  have  made  his  name  familiar  to  readers 
of  mathematical  periodicals. 

BoREL  bears  the  title  of  professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  and 
in  some  years  has  given  public  lectures  there.  In  the 
year  191 5-16,  however,  his  work  was  confined  to  the 
Ecole  Normale  Superieure,  and  was  open  to  visiting  stu- 
dents only  by  special  arrangement.  He  may  be  con- 
sidered, perhaps  jointly  with  Hadamard,  as  the  leader 
in  a  younger  group  of  French  analysts.  He  is  probably 
best  known  by  the  series  of  monographs  (on  the  theory 
of  functions)  of  which  he  is  the  editor,  and  of  a  number 
of  which  he  is  the  author. 

In  191 5-16,  GuiCHARD  and  Cahen  gave  courses  in 
the  Sorbonne  on  rational  mechanics.  Both  these  men 
have  done  important  work  also  in  other  fields,  the  former 
in  geometry,  the  latter  in  the  theory  of  numbers.    Their 


MATHEMATICS  167 

brilliant  predecessor  in  the  chair  of  mechanics, 
Painleve,  has  been  for  a  time  occupied  with  governmental 
work,  as  Minister  of  Education. 

The  courses  of  Boussinesq  and  Koenigs  in  mathe- 
matical physics  should  also  be  mentioned,  though  they 
he  partly  without  the  field  we  are  considering. 

In  addition  to  the  lecture  courses  mentioned  above, 
conferences  were  held  at  the  Sorbonne  and  the  Ecole 
Normale  in  1915-16  by  Lebesgue,  whose  new  theory 
of  integration  is  already  classical;  Vessiot,  perhaps  best 
known  for  his  work  in  extending  the  Galois  theory  to 
linear  differential  equations;  Cartan,  whose  name  is 
familiar  to  students  of  group  theory;  and  Montel,  who 
has  made  brilliant  contributions  to  the  theory  of  func- 
tions. 

If  we  have  deferred  mention  of  Hadamakd,  it  is  not 
because  he  can  be  assigned  any  other  than  a  foremost 
position  among  French  mathematicians,  but  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  his  work  in  not  at  the  Sorbonne,  but 
at  the  College  de  France  and  the  ficole  Polytechnique. 
At  the  latter  institution  his  classes  are  not  open  to  the 
pubhc;  but  at  the  former,  where  he  holds  the  chair 
of  Analytic  and  Celestial  Mechanics,  all  hearers  are 
welcome.  His  courses  are  by  no  means  confined  to  the 
subjects  indicated;  in  the  year  1915-16  he  lectured  on 
the  analytic  theory  of  prime  numbers,  to  which  he  made 
contributions  of  such  fundamental  importance  in  his 
earlier  work.  Like  Poincare,  his  genius  has  covered 
almost  the  whole  field  of  mathematics,  and  he  has  espe- 
cially enriched  analysis  and  applied  mathematics  by  his 
researches. 

At  the  College  de  France  one  may  also  hear  the  lec- 
tures of  Humbert,  perhaps  best  known  by  his  "Cours 
d'analyse."  His  work  is  mainly  in  algebra  and  analysis. 
The   courses  in  mathematical  physics   given   here   by 


1 68  MATHEMATICS 

Brillouin  and  Langevin  fall  at  least  partly  in  the  field 
we  are  considering. 

Special   Facilities   for   Work  in  Mathematics.    The 

difficulty  of  obtaining  personal  assistance  and  direction 
has  by  some  been  considered,  in  past  periods,  an  obstacle 
to  the  study  of  mathematics  in  France.  It  is  true  that 
there  is  nothing  like  a  seminary  system,  but  men  of  some 
maturity  who  are  pursuing  research  along  a  special  line 
will  find  the  experts  in  that  field  glad  to  confer  with  them. 
The  leaders  in  French  mathematics  are  unusually  acces- 
sible personally,  and  many  American  students  have 
derived  inspiration  and  encouragement  from  them. 

It  is  possible  for  foreign  students  to  obtain  admission 
to  the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure,  and  in  the  past  a 
few  have  done  so.  One  may  thus  attend  courses  closed 
to  the  public  and  have  access  to  the  large  mathematical 
library  of  the  school.  The  mere  association  with  the 
intellectual  elite  of  French  students  is  a  privilege  worth 
while  in  itself. 

The  great  library  of  the  Sorbonne  has  a  complete 
mathematical  collection;  one  who  joins  the  French  mathe- 
matical society  has  the  privilege,  enjoyed  by  members, 
of  access  to  the  shelves  of  the  library.  Another  mathemat- 
ical collection  of  considerable  value  to  one  lodged  in  the 
student  quarter  of  Paris  is  that  of  the  Bibliotheque 
Sainte-Genevieve. 


Medicine 

INCLUDING 

INTRODUCTORY  SURVEY, 

PHYSIOLOGY,  NEUROLOGY, 

MEDICINE,  SURGERY, 

AND  PATHOLOGY 


Introductory  Survey  of 
French  Medical  Science' 

To  catch  and  imprison  within  the  rigid  symbols  of 
language  the  spirit  of  a  people,  as  shown  in  any  aspect 
of  their  national  Hfe,  so  that  the  printed  page  may  render 
back  to  each  reader  a  faithful  picture,  is  as  difficult  as  the 
task  of  the  painter,  who  would  depict  upon  his  canvas  not 
merely  the  features,  but  the  essence  of  that  inner  life 
which  lies  back  of  the  ever-changing  expression  as  a 
central  unity.  Without  this  there  can  be  no  true  portrait. 
French  medical  science,  in  the  modern  sense,  has  a  history 
of  a  little  more  than  one  hundred  years,  of  rapid  growth, 
of  constantly  increasing  diversification,  of  shifting  inter- 
ests like  the  swing  of  the  pendulum,  often  too  far  to  one 
side ,  then  to  the  other.  Nevertheless ,  through  it  all  can  be 
traced  something  individual,  a  central  stream  of  tendency 
essentially  French,  which,  impinged  on  from  either  side  by 
the  flow  of  thought  into  it  from  other  lands,  has  produced 
the  actual  achievements  in  each  of  the  lines  of  special  en- 
deavor that  will  be  recounted  in  the  chapters  which  follow. 
Sympathy  and  imagination  are  perhaps  the  most  char- 
acteristic attributes  of  the  French  mind,  as  common-sense 
and  justice  are  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  orderliness  of 
the  German.  Sympathy  and  imagination  may,  I  believe, 
be  traced  through  the  whole  development  of  French 
medicine.  Wide  and  sympathetic  interest  in  the  relief  of 
human  suffering  through  the  advance  of  knowledge  of 
disease  has  been  instinctive  in  their  greatest  scientists, 

^[Drafting  Committee:  T.  C.  Janeway,  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity.— Ed.] 

171 


172  MEDICINE 

and  has  prevented  that  intense  absorption  in  a  single 
field  of  research  which  leads  to  complete  detachment  and 
isolation  of  the  investigator.  Because  of  this,  French 
physiology,  from  Magendie  through  the  immortal  Claude 
Bernard  and  Marey  to  its  modern  exponents,  has  always 
been  experimental  medicine.  Each  of  these  men,  while 
aiming  at  the  elucidation  of  the  normal  function  of  the 
body,  constantly  strove  to  apply  his  discoveries  to  the 
unraveling  of  their  complex  disorders.  The  mention  of 
Claude  Bernard's  name  evokes  first  of  all  the  thought  of 
diabetes,  not  of  the  normal  liver  function.  These  men 
taught  as  they  thought,  presenting  their  subject  in  its 
relation  to  pathology  and  to  clinical  medicine,  not  as 
something  independent  and  self-sufficient.  The  earHer 
chapters  of  Claude  Bernard's  "Legons  de  physiologie  ex- 
perimentale"  contain  the  program  of  the  modern  medical 
chnic,set  forth  with  a  cogency  and  a  lucidity  which  have 
never  been  equalled,  a  program  which  we  are  only  just 
beginning  to  realize.  So  too  Pasteur,  the  chemist,  with 
the  highest  type  of  scientific  imagination,  seeing  in  his 
discovery  of  the  nature  of  putrefaction  the  key  which 
would  unlock  the  door  to  knowledge  of  the  infectious 
diseases,  and  planning  the  simplest  experiments  by  which 
he  might  reach  his  goal,  is  kin  to  the  creative  artist  who, 
with  a  few  bold  lines,  draws  the  picture  that  will  live  when 
mere  photographs,  with  all  their  wealth  of  detail,  shall 
have  faded  into  nothingness. 

Closely  allied  to  the  insight  which  grows  out  of  imagina- 
tion and  sympathy  is  a  certain  attitude  toward  reality  as  a 
whole,  which  the  French  exemplify  in  their  thought  as  in 
their  medical  science.  They  love  life  in  all  its  baffling 
complexity  better  than  abstract  formulations.  An  in- 
tense desire  to  see  and  accurately  describe  every  varied 
feature  of  disease  in  the  actual  patient  has  enabled  French 
physicians  to  detect  and  record  for  the  first  time  many 


INTRODUCTORY  SURVEY  173 

rare  morbid  conditions  and  symptoms.  They  have  been 
masters  of  the  arts  of  clinical  observation  and  description. 
This  interest  in  the  actual,  in  seeing  things  as  they  are 
through  one's  own  eyes,  is  of  all  qualities  the  most  im- 
portant for  the  practitioner  of  medicine.  It  consorts  ill 
with  the  tendency  of  the  compiler,  who  laboriously 
gathers  from  other  sources  than  his  own  experience  all 
existing  knowledge,  and,  systematizing  it,  makes  it  avail- 
able for  the  mass  of  men.  He  is  the  bookkeeper  of 
science,  useful  but  uninspiring.  The  infinite  variety  of 
the  expressions  of  disease  in  the  individual  has  at  times 
led  the  French  school  to  erect  unnecessary  distinctions; 
but,  in  spite  of  occasional  excesses,  its  keen  discrimina- 
tions have  been  the  means  of  detecting  many  unsuspected 
clinical  syndromes.  Because  of  this  fundamental  interest 
in  the  concrete,  French  medical  students  have  always 
entered  the  hospitals  from  the  very  beginning  of  their 
course,  and  have  seen  sick  patients  during  the  years  in 
which  they  were  mastering  anatomy,  physiology,  and  the 
other  underlying  medical  sciences. 

Finally,  that  passion  for  the  mastery  of  his  language 
as  a  vehicle  for  thought,  which  is  so  strong  in  the  French- 
man, has  lent  to  his  medical  teaching  and  to  the  pub- 
lication of  his  scientific  work  a  clarity,  elegance,  and  charm 
which  are  rarely  equalled  in  any  other  country.  To  the 
earnest  student  of  medicine  the  manner  in  which  he 
clothes  his  ideas  can  never  be  of  small  consequence;  and 
the  example  which  will  be  constantly  before  him  as  he 
listens  to  the  presentation  of  a  case  in  the  hospital  ward, 
or  to  the  announcement  in  a  few  concise  and  telling  words 
of  an  important  discovery  at  a  meeting  of  the  Societe  de 
Biologic  or  the  Societe  des  Hopitaux,  will  be  one  worthy  of 
emulation. 

In  modern  science,  machinery  and  method  have  of  late 
almost  obscured  from  view  that  hidden,  but  essential, 


174  MEDICINE 

factor  in  progress,  the  mind  of  man.  Machinery  and 
method  have  proved  their  value,  and  we  shall  not  discard 
them.  France  has  perhaps  in  the  past  laid  too  little 
stress  on  the  organization  of  research,  but  she  has  never 
failed  to  preserve  that  atmosphere  of  free  intellectual 
inquiry  and  unconquerable  scientific  curiosity  in  which 
the  genius  who  creates  new  machinery  and  devises  new 
methods  to  solve  new  problems  can  best  develop.  The 
first  great  American  physicians,  one  hundred  years  ago, 
sought  in  Paris  at  the  feet  of  Laennec  and  Louis,  of 
PiNEL  and  RicoRD,  of  Dupuytren  and  Velpeau,  and  of 
the  great  Magendie,  the  inspiration  which  enabled  them 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  scientific  medicine  in  our  land. 
American  medical  science  is  now  thoroughly  organized, 
rich  in  facilities  for  research  in  hospitals  and  laboratories, 
full  of  enthusiasm  for  high  achievement.  It  must  appro- 
priate and  adapt  to  its  own  uses  the  best  that  it  finds  in  all 
lands.  In  France  it  will  find  scientific  imagination  of  the 
highest  order,  sympathy  so  wide  as  to  unite  all  groups  of 
specialists  in  devotion  to  the  aims  of  medicine  as  a  whole, 
acute  observation  of  the  finer  details  of  clinical  symptoms, 
a  spirit  which  loves  reality  so  intensely  that  it  will  not 
cramp  it  within  too  simple  and  artificial  categories,  and 
the  best  model  for  its  imitation  in  the  creation  of  its 
medical  literature. 


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Physiology' 

The  historian  who  attempts  to  trace  the  development 
of  modern  physiology  (that  is  to  say,  physiology  as  an 
experimental  science  based  on  physics  and  chemistry) 
will  find  it  necessary  to  refer  constantly  to  the  names 
of  the  great  French  physiologists  of  the  19th  century, 
Frangois  Magendie  and  Claude  Bernard.  While  much 
good  work  was  being  done  in  England  at  that  period, 
largely  on  anatomical  lines,  and  in  Germany  Johannes 
MtJLLER  and  his  famous  pupils  were  making  notable 
contributions  to  physiology  and,  indeed,  to  biology  in 
general,  the  really  modern  spirit  of  physiological  research 
found  its  most  earnest  advocates  and  exemplars  in  the 
two  French  physiologists  named.  In  his  wonderful  ex- 
perimental lectures,  given  at  the  College  de  France, 
Magendie  over  and  over  again  emphasized  the  impor- 
tance of  experimental  investigation  as  opposed  to  specu- 
lation and  theorizing,  and  in  his  words  and  by  his  works 
he  indicated  clearly  the  lines  along  which  physiology 
should  advance, —  the  lines  in  fact  along  which  it  has 
advanced.  His  great  pupil  Bernard,  filled  with  his 
master's  spirit,  and  endowed  with  a  scientific  mind  of 
the  first  order,  made  those  remarkable  discoveries  which 
entitle  him  to  be  ranked  as  the  greatest  physiologist 
that  the  world  has  produced.  At  that  time  physiology 
was  the  sole  experimental  medical  science;  and  the  great 
influence  exerted  by  these  two  men  made  itself  felt  not 
only  upon  the  subsequent  development  of  physiology 

^  [Drafting  Committee:   Wm.  H.  Howell,  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity.—  Ed.] 

175 


176  MEDICINE 

as  a  separate  science  but  in  the  modernization  of  medi- 
cine as  a  whole.  Medical  men  from  all  countries  went 
to  Paris  to  work  with  Bernard,  and  by  this  means  his 
influence  was  extended  through  personal  contact  over  a 
wide  area. 

In  addition  there  grew  up  round  him  a  group  of 
pupils,  Marey,  FEANfOis-FRANCK,  Bert,  Richet, 
d'ARSONVAL,  Grehant,  Dastre,  and  others,  who  in 
their  turn  have  contributed  brilliantly  to  the  advance- 
ment of  the  subject.  The  work  of  Bert  upon  barometric 
pressure  is  worthy  of  special  notice.  Conceived  and 
executed  in  a  scientific  and  comprehensive  spirit,  it  met 
at  first,  singularly  enough,  with  some  bitter  criticism 
from  abroad;  but  it  has  since  come  to  be  recognized  as 
the  classic  and  starting  point  for  all  investigations 
dealing  with  the  physiological  effects  of  variations  in 
atmospheric  pressure.  No  less  noteworthy  are  the 
important  contributions  made  by  Marey  to  the  study 
of  movements  and  the  development  of  a  beautiful  tech- 
nique for  graphic  reproductions  of  all  kinds.  Physiol- 
ogists of  all  countries  are  deeply  indebted  to  his  genius 
in  devising  apparatus  and  methods. 

The  living  French  physiologists  comprise  such  names 
as  Richet,  Dastre,  d'ARSONVAL,  Fran^ois-Franck, 
Gley,  Weiss,  Morat,  Doyon,  Langlois,  Nicloux, 
Lapicque, — names  known  to  the  physiologists  in  all 
countries  because  of  the  important  contributions  to 
science  associated  with  them.  Richet  has  had  the  honor 
of  a  Nobel  prize  for  his  fundamental  work  in  anaphylaxis. 
D'Arsonval,  brilliant  as  a  physicist  as  well  as  physiol- 
ogist, is  remembered  also  in  connection  with  some  of 
the  early  work  upon  internal  secretions  done  in  collabora- 
tion with  Brown-Sequard.  Gley's  work  has  taken  a 
wide  range,  but  his  contributions  to  the  physiology  of 
the   internal   secretions,   especially   of   the   parathyroid 


PHYSIOLOGY  177 

glands,  have  been  of  fundamental  importance.  Fran- 
fois-FRANCK  has  published  many  beautiful  papers  upon 
vasomotor  regulation,  important  in  their  results  and 
models  of  technical  skill.  Dastre,  in  his  own  name  and 
through  the  workers  in  his  well-equipped  laboratory,  is 
known  for  work  in  all  branches  of  physiology  and  physi- 
ological chemistry.  The  work  of  these  men  and  their 
pupils  includes  all  the  existing  fields  in  physiology. 

The  longer  contributions  appear  in  the  "Journal  de 
Physiologic  et  de  pathologic  generale,"  the  successor  to 
the  well  known  "Archives  de  Physiologic  normale  et 
pathologique:"  but  the  pages  of  the  weekly  journal 
"Comptes  rendus  de  la  Societe  de  Biologic"  teem  with 
shorter  communications  that  touch  on  every  phase  of 
biological  research,  and  reflect  like  a  mirror  the  latest 
thoughts  and  aspirations  of  the  workers  in  science. 

Instruction.  Any  student  who  wishes  to  pursue 
advanced  work  in  Physiology  or  desires  instruction  in 
modern  methods  of  research  will  find  in  France,  and 
especially  of  course  in  Paris,  able  and  distinguished 
teachers  and  ample  laboratory  facilities.  In  the  labo- 
ratories of  the  Faculte  de  Medecine,  at  the  Sorbonne  in 
the  Faculte  des  Sciences,  at  the  College  de  France,  the 
Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  and  the  Institut  Pasteur, 
opportunities  are  offered  for  investigative  work  in  all 
branches  of  physiology,  and  in  biological  chemistry  and 
physics.  Details  in  regard  to  the  lecture  courses  and 
laboratory  courses  which  may  be  followed  are  furnished 
by  the  "Livret  de  I'Etudiant"  of  the  University  of 
Paris;  but  arrangements  in  regard  to  participation  in 
research  work  must  be  made  of  course  with  the  directors 
of  the  laboratories. 

Libraries  are  numerous  and  complete.  In  addition  to 
the    great    Bibliotheque    Nationale,    there    are    special 


178  MEDICINE 

libraries  at  the  School  of  Medicine,  the  Pasteur  In- 
stitute, the  Biological  Society,  etc.  In  the  use  of  these 
libraries  the  American  student  will  not  find  the  same 
freedom  and  Uberality  that  he  is  accustomed  to  in 
American  universities.  So  far  as  the  writer  is  informed 
none  of  the  Continental  libraries  follow  the  generous 
American  plan  of  giving  students  free  access  to  books  and 
periodicals.  But  if  the  regulations  in  force  are  learned 
and  observed,  no  serious  difficulty  is  encountered  in 
obtaining  any  Hterature  that  may  be  desired. 

Outside  this  routine  work  in  lectures  and  in  labora- 
tories, the  physiological  student  in  Paris  has  an  almost 
unequaled  opportunity  to  acquire  a  broad  cultural  basis 
in  the  related  sciences  and  in  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  his  subject.  Numerous  pubhc  lectures  and 
exercises  may  be  attended  without  charge;  and  in  the 
many  museums,  especially  in  the  Museum  of  the  Con- 
servatoire National  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  objects  of 
historical  interest  in  science  may  be  seen  and  studied. 


JEAN  MARTIN  CHARCOT  (1825-1893) 


medicine:  neurology 


Neurology' 

Since  the  dawn  of  scientific  medicine  the  neurology 
of  France  has  been  preeminent,  sometimes  almost  to  the 
point  of  isolation.  And  the  present  maintains  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  past.  Now,  as  formerly,  productivity  in 
this  department  is  largely  concentrated  in  Paris.  Unless 
it  be  on  account  of  some  sporadic  activity  (such  as  the 
work  in  hypnotism  at  Nancy  thirty  years  ago),  the 
student  of  nervous  diseases  will  have  no  occasion  to  go 
elsewhere.  In  the  Capital  the  science  and  art  of  neurol- 
ogy flourish  as  on  no  other  soil.  Enormous  hospitals 
and  infirmaries  furnish  clinical  and  pathological  material 
without  parallel,  and  here  are  more  men  of  parts  actively 
engaged  in  neurological  work  than  in  any  other  city  of  the 
world.  The  Societe  de  Neurologie  de  Paris  is  the  best, 
the  best  organized,  and  the  most  active  neurological 
society  in  existence.  There  are  numerous  laboratories 
where  research  work  is  constantly  prosecuted;  there 
are  regular  courses  covering  the  various  aspects  of 
neurology;  during  vacation  periods  there  are  short 
courses  for  graduates;  and  there  is  a  medical  library  of 
160,000  volumes.  Added  to  this,  there  is  a  policy  of 
freedom,  a  ready  accessibility,  and  a  personal  welcome 
such  as  are  found  in  no  other  great  medical  center  of 
Europe. 

In  presenting  a  brief  outline  of  the  opportunities  for 
graduate  work  in  neurology  we  may  assume  that  the 

^Drafting  Committee:  Hugh  T.  Patrick,  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity; Morton  Prince,  Tufts  College. —  Ed.] 

179 


i8o  MEDICINE 

student  has  mastered  the  more  elementary  steps.  If 
he  has  not,  there  are  laboratories  where  he  can  familiarize 
himself  -with  the  structure  of  the  nervous  system  and 
histological  technique.  Likewise  he  will  find  practical 
courses  in  methods  of  clinical  examination,  diagnosis, 
and  treatment.  Such  courses  are  given  especially  in 
connection  with  the  Clinic  for  Diseases  of  the  Nervous 
System  at  the  Salpetriere,  where  the  material  is  pecu- 
liarly rich. 

The  more  advanced  student  will  wish  to  spend  his 
time  with  the  leaders  of  French  neurology  in  the  various 
hospitals  and  in  the  laboratories  for  research  and  patho- 
logical work.  Here  it  is  difficult  to  separate  the  man  from 
the  institution,  and  consequently  we  shall  make  an 
attempt  to  consider  them  together, —  a  quite  illogical, 
but  we  think  useful  method.     And  first  of  all. 

La  Salpetriere  {Hospice  de).  This  is  a  huge  infirmary 
or  poorhouse  for  women.  But  it  is  on  a  hospital  basis, 
divided  into  well  organized  services  with  complete  at- 
tending and  house  staffs,  the  patients  studied  and  re- 
corded as  in  any  modern  hospital.  It  was  here  that 
Charcot  pursued  his  epoch-making  researches  and 
where  he  finally  induced  the  faculty  to  establish  the 
far-famed  university  clinic  for  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system.  Later,  to  this  service  were  added  two  large 
wards  for  men.  On  this  terrain  Charcot  developed 
what  was  known  as  the  School  of  Charcot,  and  here 
delivered  the  scintillating  clinical  lectures  which  have 
been  the  admiration  and  despair  of  other  teachers  and 
have  remained  a  tradition  and  an  example  for  his 
followers. 

On  his  death  in  1893,  he  was  succeeded  temporarily 
(two  years)  by  the  brilliant  and  beloved  Brissaiid, 
whose  two  volumes  of  lectures  here  delivered  are  neurol- 
ogical gems.     The  productive  Raymond  followed  him; 


NEUROLOGY 


i»i 


and  the  present  incumbent  is  J.  Dejerine/  who  for  many 
years  has  been  one  of  the  strongest  neurologists  of  France. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  remarkable  "Semiologie  des 
Maladies  du  Systeme  Nerveux";  with  Mme.  Dejerine 
has  written  a  great  Anatomy  of  the  Nervous  System; 
and  has  published  innumerable  valuable  papers.  During 
the  school  year  he  gives  two  clinics  a  week.  That  of 
Tuesday  is  more  informal,  more  directly  practical,  in- 
volving the  presentation  of  more  patients  without  ex- 
haustive consideration  of  any  subject.  The  Friday 
lecture  generally  is  devoted  to  more  fundamental,  sys- 
tematic treatment  of  some  disease  or  problem,  and  the 
same  subject  may  run  through  several  lectures.  The 
great  wealth  of  clinical  material  makes  these  lectures 
extraordinary.  With  this  service  is  a  large  out-patient 
department. 

At  the  Salpetriere  is  also  another  immense  service  prac- 
tically devoted  to  nervous  diseases.  The  head  is  Pierre 
Marie,  perhaps  the  most  celebrated  neurologist  of 
France.  Only  to  catalogue  his  notable  contributions  to 
neuro-pathology  would  require  a  small  book.  Perhaps 
he  is  best  known  from  his  work  on  acromegaly,  various 
aspects  of  apoplexy,  scoliose  rhizomelique,  and  aphasia; 
but  there  is  scarcely  a  phase  of  organic  disease  of  the 
nervous  system  which  he  has  not  touched  to  illuminate. 
He  delivers  no  formal  lectures  but  once  a  week  has  a 
"consultation  d'externe,"  or  dispensary  service,  where 
he  holds  an  extemporaneous  clinic.  The  patients  are 
examined  under  his  eye,  and  he  makes  diagnoses,  com- 
ments and  explanations.  Of  necessity  the  work  is  rapid 
and  hence  rather  superficial;  but  the  master  exhibits  a 
combination  of  erudition,  perspicacity,  and  perspicuity, 

^  [We  regret  to  have  to  chronicle  his  decease,  which  occurred  after 
this  chapter  went  to  the  printer.  Presumably  he  will  be  succeeded 
by  Marie. — Authors.] 


i82  MEDICINE 

to  be  met  not  more  than  once  or  twice  in  a  lifetime.  For 
the  student  of  nervous  diseases  it  is  a  mine  of  informa- 
tion and  inspiration.  For  more  mature  study  and  treat- 
ment many  of  these  patients  are  taken  into  the  wards 
which  Marie  visits  nearly  every  day.  The  ward  visits 
are  free  to  any  graduate,  who  thus  hears  the  reports  of 
assistants  and  internes,  the  comments,  corrections,  and 
conclusions  of  the  chief.  This  is  not  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion, but  routine  work,  and  the  visitor's  tact  will  indicate 
to  what  extent  he  may  ask  questions. 

In  connection  with  these  two  dominant  services  at  the 
Salpetriere,  associates  and  assistants  frequently  give 
courses  relating  to  some  special  subject.  These  junior 
members  of  the  staff  are  trained  and  generally  eminent 
neurologists.  One  may  mention  Andre  Thomas,  who 
knows  as  much  of  the  cerebellum  as  any  man;  Henri 
Meige,  who  (following  Brissaud)  has  made  a  profound 
study  of  the  various  tics;  Crouzon,  a  good  all-round 
man;  Foix,  who  is  a  laboratory  expert  as  well  as  a  good 
clinician;  and  whosoever  happens  to  be  chief  of  clinic 
for  Dejerine. 

In  connection  with  the  University  clinic,  but  used 
also  by  the  other  services,  is  a  very  complete  electric 
department  under  the  personal  direction  of  Dr.  Bour- 
GUiNON,  capable,  enthusiastic,  amiable.  This,  like  every- 
thing else,  is  quite  accessible  to  the  graduate  student, 
and  offers  unequalled  opportunity  to  become  familiar 
with  electrodiagnosis  and  electrotherapeutics. 

We  may  here  state,  for  the  Salpetriere  as  well  as  for 
all  other  hospitals  and  infirmaries  of  Paris,  that  the 
qualified  graduate  will  have  no  difficulty  in  associating 
himself  with  assistants  and  internes  so  as  to  watch  their 
daily  work,  learn  their  methods  and  become  acquainted 
with  their  cases.  In  many  instances  he  may  procure 
the  privilege  of  examining  patients  himself,  thus  becoming 


NEUROLOGY  183 

familiar  with  rare  types  as  well  as  classical  clinical 
pictures. 

Bicelre  {Hospice  de)  is  an  infirmary  for  men,  corre- 
sponding to  the  Salpetriere  (though  not  so  conveniently 
located),  and  is  second  only  to  the  latter  in  wealth  of 
neurological  material.  In  the  nature  of  things  the  cases 
are  mostly  chronic.  Here  patients  are  kept  and  observed, 
and  here  they  come  to  autopsy.  At  Bicetre  the  visitor 
will  find  many  a  patient  who  has  served  as  text  for  a 
dissertation;  he  will  recall  his  picture  seen  in  a  medical 
journal,  and  later  he  will  read  of  the  post  mortem  find- 
ings. Prof.  A.  SouQUES,  who  was  preceded  by  Dejerine 
and  Pierre  Marie,  now  has  the  choice  service.  As  a  rule 
he  gives  no  regular  course  of  instruction,  but  one  may 
always  make  the  ward  visits  with  him  and  will  be  richly 
repaid.  He  is  one  of  the  ablest  and  best  informed  of  the 
Paris  school,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  approachable, 
and  he  has  a  collection  of  patients  not  to  be  duplicated. 
Their  careful  study  is  well  worth  the  time  of  any  neurol- 
ogist. 

In  the  same  institution  is  a  huge  service  for  the  feeble- 
minded (idiots  and  imbeciles),  where  Bourneville 
made  his  remarkable  pioneer  studies  and  whence  issued 
his  valuable  detailed  reports. 

L  ^Eopital  de  la  Pitie  should  next  be  mentioned,  because 
here  is  Babinski,  universally  known  from  the  reflex 
called  by  his  name;  certainly  one  of  the  most  original, 
astute,  and  forceful  of  living  neurologists.  He  seems  to 
combine  Gallic  brilliance  with  the  methodical  thorough- 
ness of  the  German,  and  by  some  is  considered  the  great- 
est French  neurologist.  Having  true  scientific  insight, 
the  fruit  of  his  labor  is  rarely  without  value.  Deprived 
of  his  contributions  on  the  reflexes,  on  spinal  and  brain- 
stem localization,  on  cerebellar  disorders,  hysteria  and 
many  other  things,  modern  neurology  would  be  far  from 


i84  MEDICINE 

being  what  it  is.  He  has  not  nearly  so  many  beds  as 
Marie,  Dejerine,  and  Souques;  but  his  turnover  is  more 
rapid,  he  has  more  acute  cases  and  also  a  large  out- 
patient following.  During  at  least  one  semester  he 
gives  a  course  of  semi-weekly  clinical  lectures  which  are 
unexcelled  and  which  no  student  of  neurology  can  afford 
to  miss.  Also  one  may  make  the  ward  visits  with  him 
and  witness  the  examination  of  such  patients  as  are 
brought  to  his  "cabinet." 

Ivry  is  a  suburb  where  is  located  another  huge  hospice, 
like  the  Salpetriere  and  Bicetre,  and  like  them  it  houses 
a  large  number  of  neurological  cases.  Until  the  outbreak 
of  the  present  war  this  service  was  in  charge  of  Prof. 
J.  A.  SiCARD.  This  conflict  once  over,  probably  he  will 
be  transferred  to  a  service  within  the  city.  Wherever 
he  may  be,  he  is  well  worth  following,  as  he  has  had  quite 
exceptional  training,  and  is  one  of  the  most  clear-sighted, 
enthusiastic,  and  energetic  of  the  present  generation. 

The  government  plan  of  promoting  hospital  physicians 
C'medecins  des  hopitaux")  from  one  service  to  another 
makes  it  impossible  to  predict  where  the  younger  men 
may  be  found  a  year  hence.  Still,  we  must  indicate  some 
of  these  rising  and  risen  men,  whose  courses  should  be 
taken  and  whose  services  visited  as  occasion  offers.  A 
fuU  list  is  impossible;  but  of  the  best  are  Georges  Guil- 
LAIN,  Henri  Claude,  Huet,  Alquier,  Andre  Leri, 
Laignel-Lavastine,  Camus,  Klippel,  Enriquez, 
JuMENTiE,  and  Lhermitte;  for  surgery  of  the  nerv- 
ous system,  De  Martel. 

We  would  particularly  note  that  no  follower  of  neu- 
rology should  miss  the  monthly  or  semi-monthly  meetings 
of  the  Societe  de  Neurologic. 

Laboratories.  In  addition  to  the  regular  University 
laboratories  of  anatomy  and  pathology,  there  are  labora- 
tories of  neuro-pathology  in  connection  with  the  services 


NEUROLOGY  185 

of  Dejerine,  Marie,  Babinski,  and  Souques.  That  of  the 
CHnic  for  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System  is  extensive 
and  well  organized,  and  offers  instruction  in  laboratory 
methods  and  normal  and  abnormal  nervous  tissues.  In 
all  of  them  a  volunteer  competent  to  work  on  pathological 
material  or  to  carry  on  research  work  will  be  welcome, 
and  will  have  the  guidance,  the  support,  and  the  inspira- 
tion of  trained  experts.  Gustave  Roussy,  who  is  chief 
of  the  University  laboratory  of  pathology,  is  a  trained 
neurologist  and  especially  interested  in  pathology  of  the 
nervous  system. 

Psychiatry.  The  focus  of  psychiatric  teaching  is  at 
the  Asile  Sainte-Anne,  where  the  professor  of  this  de- 
partment of  medicine  is  chief  and  where  he  gives 
clinics.  Who  is  to  succeed  the  late  lamented  Ballet  is 
not  now  known  to  us,  but  he  is  sure  to  be  a  strong  man 
and  a  good  teacher.  For  years  it  has  been  customary 
at  this  institution  to  give  a  two-hour  chnic  on  Sunday 
mornings.  At  Ste.-Anne  there  is  also  another  large 
service  in  mental  diseases,  so  that  the  student  devoting 
himself  to  this  branch  can  with  profit  put  in  a  large  part 
of  his  time  here.  At  the  Salpetriere  and  at  Bicetre  are 
departments  for  the  insane,  freely  accessible  to  graduates 
and  where  from  time  to  time  courses  are  given. 

As  nearly  all  ward  visits  are  made  in  the  morning  and 
most  clinical  lectures  delivered  "ante  meridian,"  the 
student  devoted  to  clinical  work  alone  may  be  a  little 
embarrassed  in  the  disposition  of  his  afternoons.  Espe- 
cially welcome  to  him  will  be  the  Infirmerie  Speciale  du 
Depot  in  the  Quai  de  FHorloge  where  every  afternoon 
Prof.  Ernest  Dupre  (the  worthy  successor  of  Lasegue 
and  Garnier)  examines  those  mentally  deranged  or 
suspected  of  mental  disorder  who  have  been  arrested  or 
picked  up  by  the  police.  The  work  involves  no  profound 
study  of  any  case,  as  the  Infirmerie  is  a  depot  of  transit; 


i86  MEDICINE 

but  we  believe  that  nowhere  can  one  so  well  learn  how  to 
go  quickly  to  the  kernel  of  a  case  of  insanity.  In  most 
semesters  Dupre  gives  a  clinic  once  a  week  at  which  the 
cases  are  gone  into  more  in  detail.  He  is  a  psychiatrist 
of  the  highest  order  and  a  fine  teacher. 

The  Societe  de  Psychiatric  and  several  excellent 
journals  afford  the  forums  and  clearing  houses  necessary 
to  maintain  the  traditions  and  continue  the  honorable 
heritage  of  French  psychiatry. 


Medicine' 


In  France  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  modern 
methods  of  clinical  observation  had  their  birth. 

BiCHAT,  following  the  great  Morgagni,  began  to 
reveal  those  changes  which  occur  in  the  organs  as  the 
result  of  disease,  and  to  correlate  the  pathological  altera- 
tions with  symptoms  which  occur  during  life.  And  when 
his  too  short  day  was  past,  there  followed  a  remarkable 
group  of  eager  cHnicians  who  endeavoured  on  the  one 
hand,  by  physical  means,  to  detect  these  changes  during 
life  and  by  the  accumulation  of  careful  clinical  and  post 
mortem  observations  to  improve  the  art  of  diagnosis; 
and  on  the  other,  by  the  employment  of  a  rigid  statistical 
method  to  test  the  accuracy  of  diagnosis  and  treatment. 
It  was  into  French  that  the  generally  neglected  contri- 
bution of  AuENBRUGGER,  announcing  the  discovery  of 
the  art  of  percussion,  was  first  translated  (de  Roziere  de  la 
Chassagne,  "Manuel  des  pulmoniques,  etc.,"  i6°,  Paris, 
Humaire,  1770);  and  later,  in  1808,  it  was  Corvisart 
who  first  recognized  the  value  of  percussion  and  intro- 
duced it  into  general  use  (Auenbrugger,  "Nouvelle 
methode,  etc.,"  par  J.  N.  Corvisart,  8°,  Paris,  Migneret, 
1808). 

Laennec  followed  with  his  discovery  of  the  art  of 
auscultation,  which  for  the  first  time  made  possible  the 
accurate  diagnosis  of  diseases  of  the  chest.  The  clinical 
methods  of  this  great  man,  as  set  forth  in  the  preface 
of  his  famous  work  "L 'auscultation  mediate,  etc.,"  (8°, 

1  [Drafting  Committee:  W.  S.  Thayer,  Johns  Hopkins  University. — 
Ed.] 

187 


i88  MEDICINE 

Paris,  Brosson  &  Chaude,  1819)  are  models  for  all  time. 
His  descriptions  of  emphysema,  bronchiectasis,  pul- 
monary oedema,  and  hepatic  cirrhosis,  are  classical. 

These  precursors  were  followed  by  a  remarkable  body 
of  students  of  whom  a  few  may  be  mentioned: 

BouiLLAiiD,  whose  acute  observations  first  called 
attention  to  the  relation  between  acute  polyarthritis 
and  endocarditis,  was  also  one  of  the  earliest  to  point 
out  the  phenomena  of  cerebral  localization.  Andral 
and  Chomel,  able  clinicians  and  conscientious  ob- 
servers. Rayer,  one  of  the  earliest  students  of  diseases 
of  the  kidneys,  whose  beautiful  atlas  is  still  regarded 
as  a  treasure  by  the  fortunate  possessor.  Loins, 
who  through  his  patient  studies  and  his  "numerical 
method,"  contributed  greatly  to  the  elucidation  of  the 
symptomatology  of  tuberculosis,  of  yellow  fever,  and 
especially  of  t3^hoid  fever  which  he  and  his  students 
first  clearly  distinguished  from  typhus.  To  Louis'  in- 
fluence more  than  to  that  of  any  other  one  man  do  we 
owe  the  introduction  of  accurate  cHnical  methods  into 
America.  Inspired  by  him,  a  large  group  of  students, 
including  the  Jacksons,  the  Warrens,  Bowditch,  Holmes, 
and  Shattuck  of  Boston;  Alonzo  Clark,  Valentine  Mott, 
and  Metcalf  of  New  York;  Gerhard,  Norris,  Stille, 
Clymer,  Ruschenberger,  and  Pepper,  Sr.,  of  Philadelphia; 
Power  of  Baltimore;  Gaillard,  Gibbs,  and  Porcher  of 
Charleston;  Cabell,  Selden,  and  Randolph  of  Virginia; 
brought  home  enthusiasm  and  ideals  which  have  been  of 
incalculable  benefit  to  American  medicine. 

Bretonneau,  celebrated  for  his  studies  on  diphtheria 
to  which  he  gave  its  name.  Villemin,  who  in  1866 
demonstrated  the  transmissibility  of  tuberculosis. 
Trousseau,  the  brilliant  clinician,  author  of  the  cele- 
brated Clinique  de  I'Hotel-Dieu.  Marey,  initiator  of 
graphic  methods  of  the  study  of  the  circulation.    Potain, 


, '  ,> .  .\.  V  a  c  -  1 4  a  C 


LOUIS  PASTEUR  (1822-1895) 


medicine:    IIEDICINE 


MEDICINE  189 

whose  early  studies  on  the  blood  pressure  and  other 
cardio-vascular  problems  contain  so  much  that  is  sug- 
gestive and  valuable;  author  with  Teissier,  Vaquez, 
Frangois-Franck  and  others,  of  "  Clinique  medicale  de  la 
Charite"  (8°,  Paris,  Masson,  1894).  Lancereaux,  who 
first  suggested  the  relation  of  the  pancreas  to  diabetes. 
HucHARD,  student  of  diseases  of  the  circulatory  appa- 
ratus. RicoRD,  whose  contributions  to  venereal  disease, 
especially  to  the  definite  separation  of  syphilis  and 
gonorrhoea  are,  as  Garrison  has  said,  "memorable  in 
the  history  of  medicine."  Fournier,  the  famous  syphil- 
ographer.  Hanot,  well  known  for  his  studies  on  cirrhosis 
of  the  liver,  who,  with  Chaulfard,  first  described  pigmen- 
tary cirrhosis.  Charcot,  probably  the  greatest  clinician 
of  his  day,  whose  earlier  contributions  on  various  branches 
of  general  medicine  were  scarcely  less  valuable  than  his 
classical  studies  upon  nervous  diseases  which  followed. 
DiEULAFOY,  student  and  successor  of  Trousseau,  fascinat- 
ing clinician,  author  of  the  well-known  treatise  on  medi- 
cine and  of  six  volumes  of  clinical  lectures.  Duchenne  of 
Boulogne,  the  great  neurologist;  Brissaud,  Joffroy, 
Gilles  de  la  Tourette,  Landry,  and  Morvan,  to 
mention  but  a  few  only  of  those  who  have  made  notable 
contributions  to  neurology. 

Pasteur,  who  opened  the  whole  chapter  of  the  rela- 
tions of  infection  to  medicine ;  whose  service  to  mankind 
looms  larger  with  every  addition  which  has  been  made 
to  our  knowledge  of  infectious  deseases.  Yersin,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  sero-therapy  and  pro- 
phylaxis of  plague. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  Frenchmen  who  within  the 
last  century  have  contributed  to  the  advance  of  medicine. 

Instruction.  These  men  have  had  worthy  successors; 
and  it  may  be  well  briefly  to  mention  a  few  of  the  living 


I90  MEDICINE 

leaders  of  French  medicine  whose  influence  and  inspira- 
tion the  student  of  today  may  seek. 

Roux,  the  director  of  the  Pasteur  Institute,  who 
with  Yersin,  in  1888,  demonstrated  the  existence  of  the 
toxin  of  diphtheria,  and  later,  independently  and  almost 
simultaneously  with  Behring,  introduced  the  method 
of  treating  diphtheria  by  antitoxin. 

RiCHET,  the  brilliant  professor  of  physiology,  who  with 
HERicouRxin  1888  demonstrated  the  presence  of  antitoxic 
substances  in  the  blood  of  animals  convalescent  from  infec- 
tious diseases;  who  in  1891  made  the  first  sero- therapeutic 
injection  in  man;  who  with  Portier  in  1902  first  demon- 
strated the  important  phenomenon  of  anaphylaxis. 

Laveran,  the  distinguished  discoverer  of  the  parasites 
of  malaria,  who  from  the  laboratory  of  the  Institut  Pasteur 
is  still  giving  forth  valuable  contributions  to  parasitology. 

Landouzy,  whose  name,  with  that  of  Dejerine,  is 
associated  with  a  form  of  muscular  atrophy;  who  has 
contributed  to  many  branches  of  medicine  but  especially 
to  the  study  of  tuberculosis,  pointing  out,  among  the 
earliest,  the  almost  constant  relation  of  tuberculosis  to 
the  so-called  idiopathic  sero-fibrinous  pleurisy.  Dean 
today  of  the  Medical  Faculty,  he  is  still  active  in  his 
clinic  for  tuberculosis  at  the  Hopital  Laennec. 

Dejerine,  professor  at  the  Faculty,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  living  neurologists,  author  of  a  monumental 
anatomy  of  the  nervous  system  and  (with  Andre- 
Thomas)  of  the  volume  on  diseases  of  the  spinal  cord 
in  the  "Nouveau  Traite  de  medecine  et  de  therapeutique'^ 
(1909);  a  brilliant  clinician  whose  exercises  at  the  Sal- 
petriere  are  most  stimulating.-^ 

Pierre  Marie,  professor  at  the  Faculty,  who  first 
described  the  disease  Acromegaly  and  pointed  out  its 

^  [His  death,  since  this  chapter  went  to  press,  is  chronicled  with 
deepest  regret. — Author.] 


MEDICINE  191 

association  with  tumours  of  the  pituitary  body;  author 
of  many  contributions  to  the  science  of  neurology  and 
especially  of  the  admirable  "Legons  sur  les  maladies  de 
la  moelle"  (1892);  editor  of  "La  pratique  neurologique " 
(Paris,  8°j  Masson,  191 1);  presides  now  over  a  clinic 
at  the  Salpetriere. 

Blanchard,  professor  at  the  Faculty,  who  is  today 
probably  the  leading  parasitologist  of  the  world. 

WroAL,  professor  of  medicine,  distinguished  clinician, 
well  known  for  his  adaptation  of  the  Gruber-Durham 
phenomenon  to  the  diagnosis  of  typhoid  fever;  who, 
through  a  long  series  of  studies  has  made  important  con- 
tributions to  our  knowledge  of  nephritis,  as  well  as 
notable  investigations  concerning  haemolytic  jaundice; 
director  of  a  well  organized  service  at  the  Cochin  with 
good  laboratories  offering  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
the  well  equipped  post-graduate  student. 

Chauffard,  professor  at  the  Faculty,  a  brilliant  and 
suggestive  clinician;  (with  Hanot)  described  pigmentary 
cirrhosis  (1882);  author  of  many  contributions  to  various 
branches  of  medicine,  including  (with  Laederich)  an 
excellent  work  on  diseases  of  the  kidney  (1909);  dis- 
coverer of  the  nature  of  haemolytic  jaundice  (1907); 
director  of  a  service  at  the  Hopital  Saint-Antoine. 

Vaquez,  agrege,  able  clinician,  whose  studies  have 
especially  concerned  the  cardio-vascular  apparatus; 
author  of  many  contributions  to  medical  literature; 
discoverer  of  the  disease  Polycythaemia,  which  is  some- 
times spoken  of  as  Vaquez'  disease;  editor  of  the 
"Archives  des  maladies  du  coeur,"  etc.;  director  of 
an  active  service  at  the  Saint-Antoine,  which  should 
offer  a  good  field  for  post-graduate  study. 

Letulle,  professor  at  the  Faculty,  author  of  an  im- 
portant work  on  pathological  anatomy,  director  of  a 
service  at  the  Hopital  Boucicault. 


192  MEDICINE 

Babinski,  distinguished  neurologist;  author  of  import- 
ant contributions  to  this  branch  of  medicine;  presides 
over  a  clinic  at  the  Pitie. 

Marfan,  professor  at  the  Faculty,  a  leading  authority 
on  diseases  of  children;  one  of  the  ablest  and  most 
stimulating  clinicians  in  Paris,  whose  visits  at  the 
Enfants-Malades,  where  he  directs  a  service,  are  always 
replete  with  suggestion. 

Netter,  agrege,  who  has  made  many  contributions 
to  the  study  of  the  meningitides  and  of  poliomyelitis;  di- 
rector of  a  clinic  at  the  Trousseau. 

Gaucher,  professor  at  the  Faculty,  director  of  the 
great  dermatological  clinic  at  the  Hopital  Saint-Louis, 
where  almost  unequaled  advantages  are  offered  for  the 
study  of  diseases  of  the  skin;  author  of  an  excellent  volume 
on  dermatology  (1909). 

Gilbert,  professor  at  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  director 
of  the  old  clinic  of  Trousseau  at  the  Hotel-Dieu,  who 
has  made  many  contributions  concerning  diseases  of  the 
liver  and  jaundice;  editor  of  the  "Nouveau  traite  de 
medecine  et  de  therapeutique." 

Achard,  professor  at  the  Faculty,  director  of  a  clinic 
at  the  Hopital  Necker,  known  especially  for  his  studies 
of  renal  function. 

Janet,  professor  of  psychology  at  the  College  de 
France;  director  of  a  laboratory  at  the  Salpetriere; 
whose  contributions  to  the  study  of  hysteria  are  well 
known. 

Labbe,  agrege,  who  has  devoted  himself  especially 
to  tlie  diseases  of  nutrition  and  metabolism;  director  of 
a  service  at  the  Charite. 

Teissier,  agreg6,  collaborator  with  Potain  in  his 
studies  on  the  cardio-vascular  system;  editor  of  his 
posthumous  volume  on  the  blood  pressure;  physician  at 
the  Claude  Bernard. 


MEDICINE  193 

GuiLLAiN,  agreg6,  one  of  the  most  active  and  pro- 
ductive of  the  younger  neurologists;  director  of  a  cHnic 
at  the  Hopital  Cochin. 

Bernard,  agrege,  whose  studies  on  renal  function,  on 
the  supra-renal  glands,  and  on  tuberculosis  are  well 
known;  one  of  the  editors  of  the  admirable  ''Annales  de 
medecine." 

RiST,  director  of  a  clinic  at  the  same  hospital,  a  sug- 
gestive clinician  who  has  contributed  to  many  branches 
of  medicine. 

Legueu,  clinical  professor  of  diseases  of  the  urinary 
tract,  director  of  Guyon's  old  clinic  at  the  Hopital 
Necker,  in  whose  service  the  valuable  work  of  Ambard 
on  the  normal  and  pathological  physiology  of  the  kid- 
neys was  done. 

Henriquez,  author  of  valuable  work  on  diseases  of  the 
digestive  tract;  director  of  a  service  at  the  Pitie. 

Castaigne,  agrege,  who  has  written  ably  on  diseases 
of  the  kidney  and  liver. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  leaders  of  modern 
French  medicine. 

Good  opportunities  for  study  are  offered  also  in  the 
well  organized  clinics  of  Lyon,  where  the  names  of 
Lepine,  Teissier,  Courmont,  Gallavardin,  Mouri- 
QUAND,  and  others,  are  well  known;  and  in  Lille,  where 
Calmette,  distinguished  for  his  many  contributions  to 
bacteriology  and  serology,  especially  for  his  discovery  of 
anti-venine  and  for  his  studies  on  tuberculosis,  presides 
over  the  Pasteur  Institute. 

Opportunities  for  Graduate  Work.  There  are  in 
France  few  of  those  regularly  organized  and  rather 
superficial  short  courses  for  post-graduate  students  which 
are  so  well  known  in  some  other  continental  countries. 
On  the  other  hand,   there  are   good   opportunities  for 


194  MEDICINE 

the  student  who  desires  to  pursue  research  in  any- 
special  branch  or  to  acquire  experience  in  cHnical  medicine. 

As  one  looks  back  over  the  past  hundred  and  fifty  years 
it  may  be  said  that  the  French  have  excelled  as  cHnical 
observers  and  as  students  of  the  symptomatology  of 
disease.  They  have  been  peculiarly  talented  as  clini- 
cians and  remarkably  acute  in  the  detection  of  pictures 
of  disease  by  bedside  study  and  investigation,  and  in  the 
correlation  of  these  pictures  with  the  underlying  patho- 
logical changes.  The  same  may  be  said  today.  In  no 
country  is  the  cHnical  symptomatology  of  disease  studied 
with  greater  acuteness  or  intelligence  than  in  France. 

The  organization  of  the  hospitals  as  relates  to  special 
laboratories  for  experiment  and  research  has  hitherto 
not  been  so  attractive  as  in  some  other  European  coun- 
tries; but  great  advances  are  being  made,  and  varied 
opportunities  for  serious  post-graduate  study  may  be 
found  now  in  many  of  the  clinics  as  well  as  at  the  Pasteur 
Institute.  This  is  especially  true  with  regard  to  diseases 
of  the  nervous  system. 

Regular  courses  of  lectures  and  clinics,  all  of  which 
are  open  to  the  public,  are  given  annually  by  different 
members  of  the  faculty.  These  exercises,  which  vary  in 
character  from  year  to  year,  are  often  as  valuable  to 
the  post-graduate  as  to  the  undergraduate  student. 
The  opportunities  for  chnical  observation  in  the  hos- 
pitals of  Paris  during  the  daily  public  visits  of  the  physi- 
cians are  almost  unequaled. 

Libraries  and  Museums.  Paris  offers  also  great 
advantages  in  the  way  of  hbraries.  The  Bibliotheque 
Nationale,  with  its  unrivaled  collections,  affords  every 
opportunity  for  general  study.  The  Library  of  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine,  with  160,000  volumes,  is  accessible 
to  all  students,  and  the  privilege  to  work  in  the  Library 


MEDICINE  195 

of  the  Academy  of  Medicine  may  be  obtained  on  special 
presentation. 

The  Musee  Dupuytren  has  a  valuable  collection  of 
pathological  specimens;  and  the  Musee  Orfila  at  the 
ficole  de  Medecine  is  an  excellent  museum  of  normal 
anatomy  and  physiology.  Valuable  parasitological  col- 
lections are  also  to  be  found  at  the  laboratory  of  para- 
sitology, and  there  are  special  collections  at  various 
hospitals. 

Societies.  Especially  valuable  to  the  post-graduate 
student  are  the  weekly  meetings  of  the  Societe  de  biologie, 
the  Societe  medicale  des  hopitaux,  as  well  as  the  reunions 
of  the  Academie  de  Medecine,  at  which  he  may  listen  to 
the  discussion  of  the  actualities  of  medicine  and  biological 
science  by  the  leading  students  of  the  day. 


Surgery 


Following  the  Napoleonic  wars  there  was  a  rapid  ad- 
vance in  the  French  school  of  surgery,  and  Paris  became 
the  center  of  graduate  study  for  the  entire  world. 

DupuYTREN  (1777-1835)  was  the  most  illustrious 
French  surgeon  of  the  first  half  of  the  century.  His 
clinics  at  the  Hotel-Dieu  drew  students  from  all  coun- 
tries. His  most  lasting  contributions  were  in  the  field 
of  surgical  pathology.  He  was  the  first  accurately  to 
describe  contracture  of  the  palmar  fascia  and  fracture 
about  the  ankle  joint.  His  treatises  on  Injuries  and 
Diseases  of  the  Bones  and  Legons  Orales  were  extensively 
translated.  Velpeatj  (i 795-1 867)  was  a  great  operating 
surgeon,  who  wrote  the  first  detailed  treatise  on  Surgical 
Anatomy;  a  three-volume  treatise  on  Operative  Surgery, 
and  an  extensive  work  on  Diseases  of  the  Breast,  were 
also  among  his  writings.  Velpeau's  bandage  for  fixa- 
tion of  the  arm  is  familiar  to  every  medical  student. 
Malgaigne  (1806-65)  was  well  known  for  his  work  in 
experimental  surgery,  especially  on  the  healing  of  frac- 
tures. His  treatise  and  atlas  on  fractures  and  disloca- 
tions remained  a  classic  for  many  years.  He  is  described 
by  Billings  as  "the  greatest  surgical  historian  and  critic 
whom  the  world  has  yet  seen."  His  historical  writings 
dealt  especially  with  the  Hippocratic  period,  and  with 
the  works  of  Ambroise  Pare,  the  most  famous  surgeon 
of  the  1 6th  century,  who  at  the  siege  of  Damvilliers,  in 
1552,   had   begun    to  practise    hemostase  by  ligation. 

1  [Drafting  Committee:  A.  D.  Bevan,  University  of  Chicago; 
D.  B.  Phemister,  University  of  Chicago. —  Ed.] 

196 


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SURGERY  T97 

CiviALE  was  the  first  to  perform  lithotrity  in  1824.  Au- 
gusta Nelaton  (1807-73)  had  an  international  reputation 
as  a  teacher  and  operator.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  surgi- 
cal pathology,  and  is  familiar  to  the  modern  student  for 
his  introduction  of  a  valuable  rubber  catheter. 

Paul  Broca  (1824-1880)  was  the  first  great  brain 
surgeon,  and  a  leader  of  the  modern  French  school  of 
anthropology.  He  located  the  speech  center  in  the 
third  left  frontal  convolution,  and  introduced  the  term 
"motor  aphasia."  He  invented  craniometry,  and  was 
an  ardent  supporter  of  the  theory  of  evolution;  at  the 
period  of  its  introduction  he  was  credited  with  the 
aphorism:  "I  would  rather  be  a  transformed  ape  than 
a  degenerate  son  of  Adam." 

The  work  of  Pasteur  revolutionized  surgery,  as  it 
did  all  of  the  other  special  branches  of  medicine,  but  the 
French  surgeons  were  not  the  first  to  see  its  great  prac- 
tical importance  in  their  particular  field.  After  Lister 
had  established  antiseptic  surgery,  it  was  quickly  adopted 
by  the  French.  Lucas-Championniere  (d.  191 6)  was 
its  earUest  advocate  in  France  and  on  the  continent. 
Aside  from  his  early  work  on  antisepsis  and  asepsis,  he 
wrote  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  fractures,  in  which  he 
advocated  early  massage  and  passive  motion  as  the 
most  successful  agents  for  preventing  delayed  and  non- 
union and  stiffness  of  neighboring  joints. 

Overlapping  the  antiseptic  period  were  a  number  of 
well  known  French  surgeons.  Ollier  (1825-1900),  of 
Lyon,  did  the  most  extensive  and  valuable  experimental 
work  of  the  century  on  bone  regeneration  and  trans- 
plantation. His  pathological  and  chnical  writings  on 
diseases  of  the  bones  are  noteworthy  contributions. 
Felix  GuYON  (i  831-1903)  was  one  of  the  great  genito- 
urinary surgeons  of  his  time.  His  cKnic  at  Hopital 
Necker   attracted   students   from   all    over    the   world. 


1 98  MEDICINE 

Reverdin,  of  Geneva,  belonged  to  the  French  school, 
and  is  famous  for  his  method  of  skin  grafting,  and  for  his 
needle  which  is  still  extensively  used  in  France. 

Many  of  the  French  surgeons  who  have  contributed 
so  largely  to  the  advances  in  aseptic  surgery  are  still 
Hving  or  have  died  only  in  recent  years.  Terrier 
(1837-1908)  contributed  extensively  to  the  development 
of  abdominal  surgery,  especially  to  the  operative  treat- 
ment of  gall-stone  disease.  Berger  (1845-1908)  was 
best  known  for  his  operative  treatment  of  fracture 
of  the  patella  and  interscapulothoracic  amputation. 
Reclus  has  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  development  of 
local  anaesthesia.  For  twenty  years  he  has  performed 
about  two  thirds  of  the  operations  in  his  clinic  at  the 
Hotel-Dieu  under  local  anaesthesia.  Jaboulay,  of  Lyon, 
showed  the  relation  between  the  cervical  sympathetic 
ganglia  and  the  thyroid  gland,  and  introduced  cervical 
sympathectomy  for  the  treatment  of  exophthalmic 
goitre.  Felix  Lejars  is  one  of  the  ablest  surgical  anat- 
omists of  the  day.  His  book  on  emergency  surgery 
has  been  translated  into  many  languages.  Edmund 
Delorme  (1847-)  ^^^  been  a  prominent  figure  in 
French  military  surgery,  and  introduced  the  operation 
of  pulmonary  decortication  in  chronic  empyema.  Doyen 
(d.  191 7)  was  a  brilliant  operator,  and  is  well  known  for 
his  numerous  improvements  in  operative  technique  and 
as  the  inventor  of  a  number  of  valuable  surgical  instru- 
ments. His  magnificent  private  hospital,  excelled  by 
none  in  its  equipment,  was  in  191 7  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  American  Red  Cross,  under  Dr.  J.  A.  Blake. 

The  names  of  the  leaders  in  surgery  of  today  will  be  found 
in  the  list  of  the  staff  members  of  the  Paris  hospitals. 

Instruction.  The  opportunities  for  graduate  work  in 
surgery  that  attract  the  American  student  to  France 


AUGUSTE  NELATON  (1807-18 73) 


medicine:  surgery 


SURGERY  199 

are  found  almost  entirely  at  the  University  of  Paris. 
Of  the  specialties  that  are  found  at  some  of  the  pro- 
vincial Universities — such  as  legal  medicine  at  Lyon — 
space  does  not  here  permit  an  account. 

The  French  school  of  surgery  has  been  renowned  for 
its  efficiency  in  anatomy,  many  of  the  ablest  clinicians 
having  advanced  from  anatomy  into  surgery.  Conse- 
quently, excellent  opportunities  for  work  in  surgical 
anatomy  and  operative  surgery  are  to  be  had,  particu- 
larly in  the  department  of  anatomy  at  the  Ecole  Pratique, 
which  is  under  the  direction  of  Nicolas.  The  undergrad- 
uate work  in  surgery  is  taught  in  the  surgical  divisions 
of  the  various  city  hospitals,  the  staffs  of  which  are 
controlled  by  the  University.  It  is  in  connection  with 
these  clinics  that  the  best  opportunities  for  graduate 
work  are  to  be  found.  Students  work  on  the  service  as 
clinical  clerks,  have  ward  walks  with  the  chief  and  staff, 
attend  the  operations  and  clinics,  and  work  in  the  out- 
patient department.  It  is  possible  under  certain  condi- 
tions for  graduate  students  to  secure  these  positions, 
which  are  analogous  to  clinical  clerkships  in  the  Enghsh 
schools.  Special  courses  in  diagnosis  and  operative 
courses  on  the  cadaver  in  general  surgery  and  the  various 
specialties  are  given  from  time  to  time  by  the  assistants 
in  some  of  the  clinics.  Laboratories  are  attached  to  cer- 
tain clinics  where  opportunities  for  pathological,  bac- 
teriological and  research  work  are  to  be  had. 

General  surgery.  In  most  of  the  hospitals  there  is  no 
division  of  the  surgical  service;  general  surgery,  genito- 
urinary surgery,  and  gynecology  being  done  by  the  same 
staff.  The  principal  hospitals  with  their  chief  and  as- 
sistant attending  surgeons  at  the  onset  of  the  war  were 
as  follows: — Hopital  Beaujon:  Tuffier,  with  Bazy  and 
MiCHAUX.  Hopital  Bichat:  Morestin  and  staff.  Ho- 
pital   Cochin:     Quenu,    with    Schwartz    and    Faure. 


200  MEDICINE 

Hospice  des  Enf ants-Assistes :  Jalaguier  and  Veau. 
Hopital  des  Enf ants-Malades :  Kirmisson,  with  Broca 
and  Perrin.  Hotel  Dieu:  Reclus,  with  Potherat 
and  Pierre  Descamps.  Hopital  Laennec:  Hartmann, 
with  Sauve.  Hopital  Lariboisiere :  Chaput,  Reynier 
and  Picque;  Oto-rhino-laryngology,  Sebileau.  Hopital 
Necker:  Pierre  Delbet,  with  Routier;  Genito-urinary, 
Legueu.  Hopital  de  la  Pitie:  Walther  and  Arrou. 
Hopital  Saint-Antoine:  Lejars  and  Ricard.  Hopital 
Saint-Louis:  Beurnier,  Rieffel,  Rochard,  and 
MoucHET.     Hospice  de  la  Salpetriere:    Gosset. 

Gynecology.  Most  of  the  gynecology  is  done  as  a  part 
of  general  surgery;  but  the  gynecological  clinic  of  the 
University  is  at  Hopital  Broca,  under  the  headship  of 
Pozzi.  Ward  walks,  operations,  and  climes  are  held  in 
the  forenoon.  Special  courses  in  diagnosis  and  operative 
gynecology  are  given  by  the  assistants  in  the  department 
by  arrangement.  There  is  a  very  efficient  gynecological 
service  at  the  Hopital  Cochin  in  charge  of  Dr.  Faure. 
No  regular  instruction  is  given  here,  but  the  operations 
and  ward  walks  are  open  to  visitors  and  will  be  found 
of  extreme  interest. 

Genito-urinary  surgery.  The  French  school  has  long 
held  a  leading  place  in  the  field  of  genito-urinary  surgery. 
The  University  clinic  is  located  at  Hopital  Necker.  The 
chair  of  surgery  (formerly  occupied  by  Guyon  and 
Albarran)  is  now  held  by  Legueu.  Special  courses 
are  given  by  the  chief  of  staff  and  assistants  as  follows: 
Chnics,  by  Legueu;  Diagnostic  courses,  by  Papin; 
Polyclinic  and  out-patient  courses,  by  Marsan  and 
Dichirara;  Practical  courses  in  urine  examination, 
functional  tests,  etc.,byAMBARD;  Genito-urinary  pathol- 
ogy and  bacteriology,  by  Verliac;  Cystoscopy,  by 
Papin;  Ureteroscopy,  by  Marsan;  Electrotherapeutics, 
by  Courtade. 


SURGERY  20I 

Foreign  students  may  be  attached  to  the  clinic  as 
monitors  for  periods  of  6  to  12  months.  Special  after- 
noon courses  for  foreign  students  in  cystoscopy  and 
diagnosis  and  in  operative  surgery  on  the  male  and  female 
are  given  according  to  demand. 

Orthopedic  and  Children's  Surgery.  Special  courses 
in  diagnosis  and  treatment  are  offered  as  follows: — Hopital 
Trousseau:  Savariaud.  Hopital  des  Enf ants-Malades : 
Kermisson  with  Broca.  Hopital  de  la  Charite:  Special 
clinic  on  diseases  of  bones  and  joints  by  Mandaire. 

In  the  large  orthopedic  hospital  at  Berck-sur-mer, 
Calot  offers  special  diagnostic  and  therapeutic  courses 
during  the  summer  months. 

Oto-rhino-laryngology.  The  University  clinic  is  located 
at  Hopital  Lariboisiere,  under  the  direction  of  Sebileau. 
There  is  a  large  ward  and  out-patient  service,  and  in 
addition  to  the  routine  work  of  the  clinics  special  courses 
are  given  upon  request. 


PATHOLOGY' 

The  term  Pathology  is  here  used  to  comprise  morbid 
anatomy,  bacteriology,  and  hygiene. 

General  Courses.  In  the  University  of  Paris  certain 
courses  in  the  regular  curriculum  belong  properly  to 
the  field  of  Pathology.  They  are  briefly  as  follows:  a 
course  in  general  pathology,  by  Castaigne;  a  course 
in  pathological  anatomy,  by  Pierre  Marie,  assisted  by 
Roussy;  a  course  in  the  history  of  medicine  and  surgery, 
by  Letulle;  a  course  in  hygiene,  by  Chantemesse; 
and  a  course  in  experimental  and  comparative  pathology, 
by  Roger.  These  courses  are  accompanied  by  practical 
laboratory  work. 

Other  courses  are  given  in  Paris  in  institutes  affiliated 
with  the  University.  Among  such  courses  are  those 
in  bacteriology  and  hematological  technic,  by  Roger; 
in  parasitology,  by  Blanchard;  and  in  tropical  pathology 
and  hygiene,  by  WtJRTz;  all  given  at  the  Institute  of 
Colonial  Medicine  (Institut  de  Medecine  coloniale). 
Completion  of  the  course  in  colonial  medicine  in  this 
institution  entitles  the  graduate  to  a  special  diploma  in 
the  subject,  given  by  the  University  of  Paris  (Diplome 
de  Medecine  coloniale). 

The  course  in  Medical  Microbiology,  given  each  year 
at  the  Pasteur  Institute  in  Paris  from  November  15th  to 
March  15th,  is  perhaps  the  most  famous,  complete,  and 
practical  course  in  this  subject  given  anywhere  in  the 
world.  It  is  offered  by  the  division  of  microbiology 
under  the  direction  of  Roux  and  with  the  immediate 

1  [Drafting  Committee:  F.  P.  Gay,  University  of  California. —  Ed.] 

202 


FRANCOIS  XAVIER  BICHAT  (1771-1802) 


medicine:  pathology 


PATHOLOGY  203 

laboratory  supervision  of  Borrel,  Nicolle,  and  others. 
Completion  of  satisfactory  work  in  this  course  leads  to  a 
certificate  from  the  Institute  (Certificat  de  presence  et 
d 'etudes). 

Special  Research.  Opportunities  for  advanced  study 
of  special  problems  are  afforded  in  the  University  labora- 
tories in  pathology,  hygiene,  and  also  particularly  in 
connection  with  the  various  hospitals  which  are  affiliated 
with  the  University.  It  is  sufficient  comment  on  the 
true  investigative  spirit  of  the  French  to  note  that  these 
opportunities  are  not  listed  in  their  catalogues.  They 
depend  on  the  particular  desire  of  a  graduate  student 
to  do  some  definite  piece  of  work,  and  on  the  attraction 
of  some  particular  man's  name  or  personality  to  decide 
him  where  that  work  shall  be  done.  Graduate  study  is 
represented  by  no  definite  curriculum  and  by  a  reward  in 
the  shape  of  a  diploma  in  its  initial  phases  only.  True 
graduate  study,  even  in  medicine,  consists  essentially  in 
the  personal  stimulation  of  some  particular  master 
and  the  intensive  study  of  some  specialty  or  the  inves- 
tigation of  some  particular  problem. 

The  practical  aspects  of  pathological  research,  in  its 
bearing  on  clinical  diagnosis,  are  well  exemplified  in 
Paris,  where  many  able  practitioners  are  also  pathol- 
ogists of  note.  Men  like  Maurice  Letulle  and  Nattan- 
Larrder  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connection. 

The  opportunities  for  advanced  scientific  research  in 
Paris  are  more  specifically  available  in  connection  with 
the  Pasteur  Institute.  This  institute  is  divided  into 
several  services  which  deal  in  turn  with  the  practical 
applications  in  preventive  and  curative  medicine,  par- 
ticularly in  relation  to  the  infectious  diseases.  There 
is  a  clinic  for  the  preventive  treatment  of  rabies,  under 
the  direction  of  Chaillon  and  Viala,  and  a  service  of 
serum  therapy  under  the  direction  of  Martin  with  the 


204  MEDICINE 

assistance  of  Dopter.  These  two  services  include  the 
Pasteur  Hospital  for  the  treatment  of  those  infectious 
diseases  which  the  Institute  has  studied  or  is  studying. 
In  addition  to  these  more  practical  applications  of 
the  scientific  advances  in  pathology  is  the  service  of 
scientific  research  (Service  de  Recherches  scientifiques) 
so-called,  formerly  under  the  direction  of  the  late  Elie 
Metchnikopf,  and  including  such  men  as  Besredka, 
Burnet-,  Dujardin-Beaumetz,  and  Levaditi.  There 
is  also  the  service  of  colonial  microbiology  (Micro- 
biologic coloniale)  with  Laveran  and  Mesnil.  The 
mention  of  these  names  alone  is  sufficient  to  indicate 
the  type  of  original  investigation  that  is  going  on,  and 
in  which  properly  accredited  investigators  may  par- 
ticipate for  a  nominal  fee  to  pay  the  expense  of  material. 
Space  permits  no  extended  reference  to  the  general 
medical  curriculum  in  the  universities  of  France  outside 
of  Paris.  As  examples  of  more  advanced  work  certain 
men  may  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  some  of 
these  universities,  as  for  example:  Rodet  in  Mont- 
pellier,  Courmont  in  Lyon,  and  particularly  Calmette 
in  Lille.  Lille  possesses,  in  addition  to  the  university, 
a  Pasteur  Institute  under  the  direction  of  Calmette, 
with  whom  are  associated  Breton  and  Guerin,  whose 
work  in  occupational  diseases  and  particularly  in  tuber- 
culosis is  well  known. 


Philology 


INCLUDING 


CLASSICAL,  ROMANCE,  ORIENTAL, 

SEMITIC,  AND  ENGLISH 

PHILOLOGY 


Classical  Philology 

LATIN' 

The  Renaissance  had  its  birth  in  Italy,  and  Italy 
gives  her  name  to  the  first  period  of  classical  scholarship. 
To  the  second,  France  gives  hers.  If  we  set  aside  Eras- 
mus, Dutch  by  birth,  and  LiPSius,  Belgian,  we  may  say 
that  by  far  the  commanding  figures  in  Latin  philology 
in  the  sixteenth  century  are  the  French  scholars  Bude, 
who  was  the  first  important  worker  in  Roman  law  and 
Roman  coinage;  Robert  Estienne,  lexicographer  and 
editor;  Muret,  Turnebe,  and  Lambin,  critics  and 
editors;  Casaubon,  editor,  and  founder  of  the  study  of 
ancient  life;  Pithou,  editor,  and  active  collector  of 
manuscripts;  and  Scaliger  the  younger,  the  greatest 
scholar  of  his  time, — critic,  editor,  epigraphist,  numis- 
matist, and  chronologist. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  lead  was  taken  by 
the  English  and  the  Dutch.  Nevertheless,  France 
produced  three  notable  scholars:  Saumaise,  text  critic 
and  commentator;  Du  Cange,  lexicographer  of  medi- 
aeval Latin;  and  Mabillon,  who,  at  the  instance  of 
the  Benedictine  order,  set  himself  especially  to  the  study 
of  the  methods  of  determining  the  genuineness  of  manu- 
scripts and  their  dates.  From  the  resulting  work,  "De 
Re  Diplomatica,"  sprang  the  science  of  Latin  palae- 
ography. 

The  love  of  Latin  studies  persisted  in  the  eighteenth 
century  in  France  with  undiminished  vigor,  but  without 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  Wm.  Gardner  Hale,  University  of  Chicago; 
E.  K.  Rand,  Harvard  University. —  Ed.] 

207 


2o8  PHILOLOGY 

noteworthy  originality,  except  in  the  .case  of  Mont- 
FAUCON,  who  endeavored  to  present  antiquity  visually 
to  the  modern  reader  by  the  pubhcation  of  drawings  of 
ancient  monuments  ("Antiquite  appliquee  et  representee 
en  figures")- 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  Germany 
took  the  lead,  under  the  influence  of  Wolf,  the  founder 
of  modern  philology.  About  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  modern  philology  became  a  possession 
of  all  nations.  France  took  her  part,  attaining  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  century  the  high  rank  which 
she  now  holds,  with  certain  distinguished  and  precious 
characteristics  of  her  own.  Her  rise  to  eminence  was 
gradual. 

Beginning  in  1837,  Quicherat  put  forth  work  of  high 
importance  in  his  treatise  on  Latin  versification,  his 
lexicon  of  Latin  poetry,  and  his  edition  of  the  Latin 
lexicographer  and  grammarian  Nonius  Marcellus.  The 
middle  of  the  century  (to  speak  roughly)  was  character- 
ized by  admirable  Hterary  studies  like  those  of  Nisard 
on  the  Latin  poets  of  the  decadence  (1834),  the  first 
important  work  of  this  peculiarly  French  t}^e;  of  Con- 
stant Martha  on  the  moralists  of  the  Empire  (1864)  and 
on  morals,  religion,  and  science  in  the  poem  of  Lucretius 
(1869);  of  Patin  on  Latin  poetry  (1869);  of  Boissier 
(who  continued  his  work  into  the  present  century)  on 
Cicero  and  his  friends  (1865)  and  on  Roman  religion 
(1874);  and  the  striking  essays  of  Taine  on  Livy  (1856) 
and  Sai^stte-Beuve  on  Virgil  (1857).  These  two  essays, 
the  work  of  men  primarily  engaged  in  other  fields,  ex- 
emplify the  exceptional  sympathy  with  humanistic 
studies  with  which  the  French  literary  mind  is  generally 
endowed;  and  correspondingly  the  writings  of  profes- 
sional Latinists  in  France,  while  marked  by  a  pene- 
trating precision,  are  characterized  as  a  rule  by  an  acute 


CLASSICAL  PHILOLOGY  209 

and  sensitive  literary  appreciation.  The  combination 
of  these  quahties  in  classical  investigation  is  as  important 
as  it  is  rare. 

The  rise  in  France  of  the  modern  scientific  spirit  in 
Latin  studies  is  due  in  good  part  (not  to  speak  of  scholars 
happily  still  living)  to  Thurot,  who  earnestly  advocated 
the  double  ideal  of  literary  appreciation  and  scientific 
method;  to  Benoist,  who  urged  the  return  to  manu- 
scripts in  constituting  a  text,  as  against  the  acceptance 
of  tradition;  to  Weil,  whose  doctorate  dissertation  on 
the  order  of  words  in  the  ancient  languages  (1844) 
inaugurates  the  scientific  study  of  the  subject;  and  to  a 
group  of  men  of  high  achievement  whose  names  bring 
us  to  the  present  century.  Among  these,  special  men- 
tion may  be  made  of  Riemann,  syntacticist  (whose 
premature  death  cannot  be  too  much  regretted) ;  Delisle, 
whose  researches  in  palaeography  and  the  history  of 
mediaeval  libraries  have  contributed  greatly  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  preservation  and  transmission  of 
Latin  texts;  Breal,  comparative  philologist,  with  a 
wide  range  in  Latin  philology,  including  the  dialects, 
and  the  science  of  semantics,  which  he  established  and 
named;  Victor  Henry,  comparative  philologist;  Antoine, 
syntacticist;  Emile  Jacob,  editor;  Daremberg,  who  pro- 
jected the  "  Dictionnaire  des  Antiquites  grecques  et 
romaines";  and  Saglio,  who  was  for  many  years  its 
editor. 

Among  living  workers  now  in  retirement.  Max  Bonnet 
demands  special  notice  for  his  exhaustive  book  (1890) 
on  the  Latin  of  Gregory  of  Tours,  important  alike  for 
Latin  in  its  decadence  and  for  the  Romance  languages 
in  their  origins;  and  for  his  study  of  the  principal  Paris 
manuscript  of  Catullus  (1871),  a  work  performed  with 
a  penetration  and  accuracy  which  were  very  rare  at  the 
time,  and  are  not  common  now.     And  mention  should 


2IO  PHILOLOGY 

also  be  made  of  fimile  Thomas,  author  of  many  mono- 
graphs and  editions  of  classical  authors  (Cicero,  Cat- 
ullus, Petronius,  Servius),  and  of  a  vivid  presentation 
of  Roman  civilization  under  the  early  empire  ("Rome  et 
1 'Empire  aux  deux  premiers  siecles  de  notre  ere,"  1897). 

Instruction  at  the  Universities.  The  remainder  of 
our  account  concerns  the  men  who  are  now  teaching  in 
universities  or  other  institutions  of  similar  rank.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  the  limits  of  our  task  make  it 
necessary  to  omit  the  names  of  a  number  of  distinguished 
scholars  who  are  not  attached  to  any  teaching  body. 

The  attribution  "Paris"  is  to  be  understood  as  cover- 
ing the  University  of  Paris  (which  includes  the  Ecole 
Normale  Superieure),  the  College  de  France,  the  £cole 
Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes,  and  the  Ecole  Nationale 
des  Chartes.  The  teaching  in  these  different  institu- 
tions in  Paris  is  to  a  large  extent  connected,  and  all  of 
it  will  be  available.  The  professors  will  be  found  to  be 
cordial  and  generous  of  help  in  their  dealings  with  their 
students.  It  may  here  be  noted  also  that,  outside  of  the 
teaching  institutions,  Paris  and  its  neighborhood  afford 
rich  material  for  the  advanced  scholar  in  certain  fields. 
The  general  reading  room  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale 
contains  a  splendid  working  library  for  students  of  the 
classics  and  related  subjects;  while  the  Salle  des  Manu- 
scrits,  in  the  same  building,  has  a  smaller  but  generally 
sufficient  collection  of  texts  and  works  of  reference,  with 
the  largest  apparatus  of  catalogues  of  manuscripts 
anywhere  to  be  found.  The  distinguished  curator  of 
manuscripts,  Henri  Omont,  is  one  of  the  most  genial 
and  helpful  of  librarians.  Finally,  the  department  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities  in  the  Louvre,  and  the 
Museum  of  Saint  Germain,  are  extraordinarily  rich  in 
material  that  concerns  the  classical  student;  and  their 


CLASSICAL   PHILOLOGY  211 

curators  (respectively  Heron  de  Villefosse  and  Salomon 
Reinach)  are  among  the  most  eminent  of  specialists. 

In  addition  to  his  specialized  training,  the  student  in  a 
French  university  will  be  under  the  constant  influence  of 
admirable  models  of  the  art  of  exposition.  Almost 
invariably  the  French  lecturer,  whatever  his  subject, 
handles  it  with  a  large  and  philosophical  grasp,  with  an 
instinctive  sense  of  organization,  and  with  an  animation 
and  charm  of  manner  not  often  matched  in  other  coun- 
tries. 

The  opportunities  which  Paris  offers  to  the  student  of 
Latin  are  thus  seen  to  be  great.  But  it  should  also  be 
understood  that  the  faculties  of  the  provincial  universities 
contain  many  scholars  of  high  ability  and  accomplish- 
ment. 

In  the  following  exhibition  of  the  types  of  work 
prosecuted  by  French  Latinists  who  are  now  engaged 
in  teaching,  names  of  leading  scholars  are  selected, 
many  that  deserve  mention  being  necessarily  omitted. 
In  the  case  of  each  one  given,  the  prominent  line  or 
lines  of  activity,  so  far  as  publication  shows,  will  be 
indicated  by  a  statement  or  by  the  title  of  a  book. 
But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  many  scholars  for 
whom  a  technical  specialty  is  mentioned  work  in  the 
field  of  literary  interpretation  and  criticism  as  well,  and 
vice  versa. 

With  allowance  for  these  crossings  of  lines,  the  names 
are  arranged  under  the  order  of  the  groups  (i)  literature 
and  criticism,  (2)  grammar  (sounds,  inflexions,  syntax, 
etc.),  (3)  metrics  and  prose  rhythms,  (4)  palaeography, 
epigraphy,  numismatics,  (5)  history,  institutions,  religion, 
antiquities,  (6)  topography,  geography. 

Havet,  of  Paris,  has  worked  in  critical  editing  ("Plauti 
Amphitruo,"  1895;  "Notes  critiques  sur  le  texte  de 
Festus,"  1914),  in  versification,  in  the  metrics  of  prose 


212  PHILOLOGY 

(''La  prose  metrique  de  Symmaque  et  les  origines  du 
Cursus,"  1892),  in  pronunciation,  in  word-order,  and  in 
the  principles  of  criticism  ("Manuel  de  critique  verbale 
appliquee  aux  textes  latins,"  191 1).  Monceaux,  of 
Paris,  has  worked  especially  in  the  literary  history  of 
Christian  Africa  ("Histoire  litteraire  de  I'Afrique  chre- 
tienne,"  1 901-12),  and  in  the  Christian  epigraphy  of 
Africa  ("Enquete  sur  I'epigraphie  chretienne  d'Afrique," 
in  each  number  of  the  "Revue  Archeologique "  since 
1903).  Lejay,  of  the  Catholic  Institute,  Paris,  has 
worked  especially  in  Horace  (the  Satires  were  pub- 
lished in  191 2,  and  the  Epistles  are  now  in  hand),  and 
in  syntax  ("Le  progres  de  I'analyse  dans  la  syntaxe 
latine,"  1909;  several  editions  of  Riemann's  "Syntaxe 
Latine"),  and  is  a  constant  contributor  to  the  "Revue  de 
Philologie,"  of  which  he  is  one  of  the  editors.  Plessis, 
of  Paris,  has  pubHshed  upon  Latin  poetry  ("La  poesie 
latine,"  1909;  Etudes  critiques  sur  Properce,"  1889), 
and  upon  versification  ("Traite  de  metrique  grecque  et 
latine,"  1889),  and  is  now  engaged  upon  the  Odes  and 
Epodes  of  Horace,  complementing  the  work  of  Lejay. 
GoELZER,  of  Paris,  has  worked  especially  in  the  charac- 
teristics of  later  Latin  ("Etude  lexicographique  et  gram- 
matical de  la  latinite  de  Saint  Jerome,"  1884;  "Le 
latin  de  Saint  Avit,"  1909),  in  Tacitus,  and  in  com- 
parative grammar  ("Grammaire  comparee  du  grec  et 
du  latin,"  2  vols.,  1897  and  1901,  the  most  considerable 
work  of  its  kind  produced  in  France).  Jules  Martha,  of 
Paris,  has  pubhshed  upon  Cicero  ("Brutus,"  1892; 
"Comment  Cicero  est  arrive  aux  honneurs,"  1903). 

Cartault,  of  Paris,  has  published  upon  Horace  (the 
Satires,  1899),  Tibullus  and  the  authors  of  the  Corpus 
Tibulhanum  (1909),  the  elegiac  distich  in  Tibullus, 
Sulpicia,  and  Lygdamus  (191 1),  Virgil  and  Lucretius. 
CouRBAUD,  of  Paris,  has  published  upon  Cicero   ("De 


CLASSICAL  PHILOLOGY  213 

Oratore,"  I,  1905),  and  upon  Horace  ("Horace;  sa  vie 
et  sa  pensee  a  I'epoque  des  epitres,"  1914).  Collignon, 
of  Nancy,  has  published  upon  Petronius  ("Etude  sur 
Petrone,"  1892;  "Petrone  en  France,"  1905).  Ernout, 
of  Lille,  has  pubHshed  upon  Lucretius  (Book  IV,  intro- 
duction, text,  translation,  notes,  191 5)  and  upon  the 
vocabulary,  syntax,  and  morphology  of  Latin  ("Le 
parler  de  Preneste,"  1905;  "Morphologic  historique  du 
latin,"  1914).  Lafaye,  of  Paris,  has  published  upon 
Statins,  upon  Catullus,  Ovid,  Terence,  and  their  Greek 
models  ("Le  modele  de  Terence  dans  I'Hecyre,"  1916), 
upon  institutions  and  rehgion,  and  upon  inscriptions. 
He  is  editor,  with  Pottier,  of  the  "  Dictionnaire  des 
antiquites  grecques  et  romaines,"  and  a  large  contributor 
to  it.     For  his  epigraphical  work,  see  under  Cagnat. 

BoRNECQUE,  of  Lille,  has  pubhshed  upon  Seneca 
Rhetor  (text,  translation,  notes,  1902),  upon  the  metrics 
of  prose  ("Les  clausules  metriques  latines,"  1907),  and 
upon  history  ("Rome  et  les  Romains,"  in  collaboration 
with  Dornet,  191 2).  Fabia,  of  Lyon,  has  published  upon 
Caesar,  the  Prologues  of  Terence,  Tacitus  ("Les  sources 
de  Tacite  dans  lesHistoires  et  les  Annales,"  1893;  "Ono- 
masticon  Taciteum,"  1900),  and  Roman  history  and 
institutions.  De  la  Ville  de  Mirmont,  of  Bordeaux,  has 
pubhshed  upon  Livius  Andronicus,  Laevius,  Ausonius, 
Ovid,  Virgil,  and  early  Latin  poetry  ("Etudes  sur  I'an- 
cienne  poesie  latine,"  1903).  Vallette,  of  Rennes,  has 
pubhshed  upon  Apuleius  ("L'Apologie  d'Apulee,"  1908). 
CoNSTANS,  of  Aix-Marseille,  has  published  upon  Sallust 
and  Tacitus  ("Etudes  sur  la  langue  de  Tacite,"  1893). 

Mace,  of  Rennes,  has  published  upon  Suetonius  and 
upon  pronunciation  ("Essai  sur  Suetone,"  1900). 
Delaruelle,  of  Toulouse,  has  published  upon  Cicero 
("Etude  critique  sur  le  texte  du  De  Divinatione,"  191 1). 
R.  Waltz,  of  Lyon,  has  published  upon  Seneca  ("Seneca 


214  PHILOLOGY 

de  Otio,"  1909;  "La  vie  politique  de  Seneque,"  1916). 
DuRAND,  of  Paris,  has  published  upon  Cicero  ("La 
date  du  De  Divinatione,"  1903).  Thiaucourt,  of  Nancy, 
has  pubhshed  upon  Cicero,  St.  Augustine,  and  Sallust 
("Les  Academiques  de  Ciceron  et  le  Contra  Academicos 
de  Saint  Augustin,"  1903).  Lecrivain,  of  Toulouse, 
has  published  on  the  Historia  Augusta  and  on  institu- 
tions ("Etudes  sur  I'histoire  auguste,"  1904).  Ramain, 
of  Montpellier,  has  pubhshed  upon  the  use  of  the  Codex 
Bembinus  in  the  restoration  of  the  text  of  Terence  (1904), 
and  upon  word-groups  in  the  versification  of  the  dramatic 
poets  (1904). 

Meillet,  of  Paris,  has  worked  over  a  wide  range  in 
the  field  of  linguistics  ("  De  quelques  innovations  de  la 
dechnaison  latine,"  1906;  "Linguistique,"  1911;  "In- 
troduction a  I'etude  comparative  des  langues  indo- 
europeennes,"  3rd  ed.,  1912;  "L 'Evolution  des  formes 
grammaticales,"  1912).  Vendryes,  of  Paris,  has 
worked  in  hnguistics  ("Recherches  sur  I'histoire  et 
les  effets  de  I'intensite  initiale,"  1902;  "De  Hibernicis 
vocabulis  quae  a  Latina  hngua  origines  duxerunt,"  1902; 
"Sur  I'hypothese  d'un  futur  en  italoceltique,"  1909). 
Gapeiot,  of  Paris,  has  published  especially  upon  syntax 
("Le  Subjonctif  de  subordination  en  latin,"  1906;  "Pour 
le  vrai  latin,"  1909).  Marouzeau,  of  Paris,  has  pub- 
lished upon  forms,  order,  and  syntax  ("Sur  la  forme  du 
passif  parfait  latin,"  1909;  "Place  du  pronom  personnel 
sujet  en  latin,"  1907;  "L'Emploi  du  participe  present 
latin  a  I'epoque  repubhcaine,"  191 1).  Chabert,  of 
Grenoble,  has  pubhshed  especially  upon  syntax  ("De 
Latinitate  MarceUi  in  libro  de  Medicamentis,"  1897; 
"Marcellus  de  Bordeaux  et  la  syntaxe  frangaise,"  1901.) 

AuDOTJiN,  of  Poitiers,  has  pubhshed  upon  inflexions 
and  upon  meters  ("De  la  dechnaison  dans  les  langues 
indo-europeennes,"   1898).     Grammont,  of  Montpellier, 


EMILE  CHATELAIN  (1851-) 


CLASSICAL    PHILOLOGY 


CLASSICAL   PHILOLOGY  215 

has  published  upon  sounds  ("La  dissimilation  consonnan- 
tique,"  1895).  Vernier,  of  Besangon,  has  published  on 
versification  ("Sur  un  passage  de  I'Epitre  aux  Pisons": 
"Horace  et  Boileau  juges  de  I'ancienne  versification," 

1903)- 

Chatelain,  of  Paris,  has  published  a  long  and  im- 
portant list  of  works  in  palaeography  ("  Paleographie 
des  classiques  latins;  collection  de  fac-similes  des  princi- 
paux  manuscrits,"  1884-1900;  "Introduction  a  la 
lecture  des  notes  tironiennes,"  1900;  "Uncialis  scrip tura 
codicum  Latinorum  novis  exemplis  illustrata,"  1901; 
"Les  palimpsestes  latins,"  1905;  "Lucretius,  codex 
Vossianus  quadratus,"  1913).  Prou,  of  Paris,  has  pub- 
lished upon  palaeography  ("Recueil  de  fac-similes  d'ecri- 
ture  du  v^  au  xif  siecle,"  1904;  "Manuel  de  paleo- 
graphie  latine  et  frangaise,"  3d  ed.,  1910).  Cagnat, 
of  Paris,  has  worked  in  epigraphy,  antiquities,  history, 
chronology,  geography.  (The  list  of  his  publications  is 
very  long,  including:  "L'annee  epigraphique,"  1888  to 
the  present  time,  since  1900  in  collaboration  with  Besnier; 
"Explorations  epigraphiques  et  archeologiques  en 
Tunisie,"  1883-86;  "Cours  d'epigraphie  latine,"  4th  ed., 
1914;  "Corpus  Inscriptionum  Lat.  VIII,  Supplementum," 
Pars  I,  in  collaboration  with  J.  Schmidt,  1891;  Pars  H, 
in  collaboration  with  J.  Schmidt,  1904;  "Inscriptiones 
Graecae  ad  res  Romanas  pertinentes,"  Vol.  I  with  Toutain 
and  Jouguet,  191 1,  Vol.  Ill  with  Lafaye,  1905;  "Les  bi- 
bliotheques  municipales  dans  I'empire  romain,"  1906; 
"Carthage,  Timgad,  Tebessa,  et  les  villes  antiques  de 
I'Afrique  du  Nord,"  1909).  Jouguet,  of  Lille,  has  pub- 
lished in  epigraphy  (see  under  Cagnat  above)  and  in  history 
and  institutions  ("La  vie  municipale  dans  I'Egypte  ro- 
maine,"  191 1 ;  also  "Papyrus  de  Theadelphie,"  191 1 ; "  Sup- 
plement aux  papyrus  de  Theadelphie,"i9i2).  Babelon, 
of  Paris,  has  worked  especially  in  numismatics  ("Traite 


2i6  PHILOLOGY 

des  monnaies  grecques  et  romaines,"  1901-;  ''Moneta," 
1 914).  He  is  a  large  contributor  to  the  ''Dictionnaire  des 
antiquites." 

Bouche-Leclercq,  of  Paris,  is  engaged  upon  history 
and  institutions  ("RepubHque  et  empire,"  1909;  "L 'Intol- 
erance rehgieuse  et  la  poUtique,"  191 1 ;  '^  Manuel  des  insti- 
tutions romaines,"  1886) .  Bloch,  of  Paris,  has  pubHshed 
upon  histor}^  and  institutions  ("La  plebe  romaine," 
1911;  "La  republique  romaine,"  1913).  He  has  con- 
tributed many  articles  to  the  "  Dictioimaire  des 
antiquites."  Gsell,  of  Paris,  has  pubhshed  especially 
upon  the  history  and  archaeology  of  North  Africa 
("'Algerie  et  Tunisie,"  1911;  "Atlas  archeologique  de 
r.Algerie,"  191 1;  "Histoire  ancienne  de  I'Afrique  du 
Nord,"  1913).  AuDOLLENT,  of  Clermont,  has  pubHshed 
on  institutions,  inscriptions,  and  topography  ("Defixio- 
num  tabeUae  quotquot  innotuerunt,"  1904;  "Carthage 
romaine,"  1901).  Boxler,  of  the  Institut  Catholique, 
Paris,  has  published  on  institutions  ("Precis  des  institu- 
tions publiques  de  la  Grece  et  de  Rome,"  1903).  Tou- 
T-AIN,  of  Paris,  has  worked  especially  in  religion  and 
epigraphy  ("Les  cultes  paiens  dans  I'empire  romain," 
1907,  1911;  "Etudes  de  mythologie  et  d'histoire  des 
religions  antiques,"  1909;  many  articles  in  the  "Diction- 
naire  des  antiquites."  For  epigraphy,  see  under  Cagnat). 
Rexel,  of  Lyons,  has  pubHshed  on  religion  ("Cultes 
militaires  de  Rome,"  1903;  "Les  rehgions  de  la  Gaule 
avant  le  Christianisme,"  1906;  many  articles  in  the 
"  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites.")  Degert,  of  the  Institut 
Catholique,  Toulouse,  has  published  on  moral  ideas 
and  characteristics  ("Les  idees  morales  de  Ciceron," 
1909).  Heron  de  Villefosse,  of  Paris,  has  pubHshed 
extensively  on  antiquities  ("Le  tresor  de  Boscoreale," 
1899;  "Crustae  aut  emblemata,"  1903;  "Deux  inscrip- 
tions   relatives    a    des    generaux    pompeiens,"     1898). 


CLASSICAL  PHILOLOGY  217 

Besnier,  of  Caen,  has  worked  especially  in  geography, 
topography,  and  epigraphy  ("La  geographic  economique 
du  Maroc  dans  Tantiquite,"  1906;  "L'lle  tiberine  dans 
Tantiquite,"  1902;  "Lexique  de  geographic  ancienne," 
1914;  "Recueil  des  inscriptions  antiques  du  Maroc," 
1904.     See  also  under  Cagnat). 

GREEK ' 

France  in  the  early  ages  of  the  re\dval  of  Greek  studies 
was  the  home  of  many  noted  scholars, —  such  as  Robertus 
Stephanus,  Henricus  Steph-A.nus  (Robert  and  Henri 
Estienne),  Txirnebe,  Lambin,  MiiEiET,  Monte atjcon, 
Casaubon,  and  the  two  Scaligers.  .^11  of  these  men 
in  modern  esteem  hold  positions  of  unquestioned  leader- 
ship, and  much  of  their  work  has  not  been  superseded  or 
improved. 

This  heritage  has  passed  to  worthy  heirs,  and  during 
the  last  century  France  has  had  many  eminent  Greek 
scholars.  Boissonade  was  editor  of  many  previously 
unpublished  Greek  writers;  among  his  productions  were 
twenty-four  volumes  in  an  annotated  series  of  the  Greek 
poets,  five  volumes  of  i\necdota  Graeca;  he  is  especially 
famous  as  being  the  first  editor  of  the  poet  Babrius. 
BuRNOUE  was  editor  of  a  most  valuable  Greek  Grammar; 
Patin,  author  of  a  series  of  sympathetic  and  learned 
comments  on  the  Greek  Tragic  poets;  Alexandre, 
editor  of  the  Sibylline  Oracles;  Littre,  famous  both  as  a 
physician  and  a  scholar,  editor  and  translator  of  Hip- 
pocrates in  ten  volumes;  Miller,  one  of  the  most  expert 
of  palaeographers,  and  the  editor  of  many  works  which 
had  not  been  pre\dously  pubhshed;  M-AJiiiN,  author  of 
important  works  in  ^lusic,  Astronomy,  Geometry-,  and 

^[Drafting  Committee:  J.  A.  Scoii,  Northwestern  University. — 
Ed.I 


2i8  PHILOLOGY 

Anatomy ;  Tannery,  author  of  a  standard  work  on  Greek 
Science;  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  editors  of  the  famous 
Dictionary  of  Antiquities ;  Thurot,  one  of  the  best  inter- 
preters of  the 'works  of  Aristotle;  Weil,  editor  and 
commentator  in  many  fields  of  Greek  Language  and 
Literature;  C.  Lenormant  and  his  son,  F.  Lenormant, 
authors  of  works  of  the  greatest  importance  on  Numis- 
matics, Sculpture,  and  Epigraphy.  Such  men  as 
BuRNOUE,  DuMONT,  Reinach,  Foucart,  Homolle,  and 
Haussoullier,  partly  of  this  and  partly  of  the  preceding 
generation,  are  everywhere  regarded  as  among  the  leading 
scholars  and  interpreters  of  Hellenic  life  and  culture. 

The  grasp  and  productivity  of  some  of  these  men  passes 
behef;  e.g.,  Salomon  Reinach's  pubhshed  works  up  to 
1 91 4  amounted  to  over  60  volumes  and  nearly  3000 
separate  articles,  and  as  he  was  not  born  until  1858 
this  means  an  average  of  one  book  every  six  months 
and  an  article  every  four  days  of  his  adult  career. 

The  History  of  Greek  Literature  (five  volumes  of 
nearly  4000  pages)  by  Maurice  and  Alfred  Croiset  is  the 
best  that  has  been  written  in  any  language,  showing 
not  only  broad  and  exact  learning,  but  in  particular  a 
fine  and  sympathetic  appreciation  of  the  spirit  of  the 
Greeks. 

Berard,  by  his  efforts  to  identify  sites  which  had 
been  regarded  as  purely  mythical,  and  by  his  proofs  of 
the  great  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  geography  in 
understanding  early  history,  has  created  a  new  field  of 
research. 

PsiCHARi  is  the  recognized  leader  of  those  writers  who 
are  elevating  the  vernacular  of  Modern  Greek  to  the 
dignity  of  a  literary  language,  and  who  by  their  own 
productions  are  giving  it  a  literature. 

This  list  of  conspicuous  Hellenic  scholars  might  be 
multiplied,  since  in  every  field  of  Greek  studies  a  place 


HENRI  WEIL  (1818-1901) 


CLASSICAL  PHILOLOGY 


CLASSICAL   PHILOLOGY  219 

of  eminence  is  held  by  one  or  more  French  scholars. 
The  thing  which  stamps  their  learning  with  its  own 
peculiar  mark  is  literary  appreciation  and  sanity,  since 
few  of  the  phantastic  theories  which  have  wasted  and 
diverted  sound  scholarship  originated  in  France. 

Museums  and  Libraries.  Paris,  because  of  its  valuable 
collections  of  many  of  the  most  important  Greek  manu- 
scripts, its  original  works  of  Greek  art,  its  unrivaled 
wealth  in  collections  of  inscriptions,  and  its  immense 
libraries,  offers  to  students  of  Greek  hfe,  history,  Htera- 
ture,  or  language,  facilities  possessed  by  no  other  center 
of  learning.  This  preeminence  in  original  material  has 
drawn  to  Paris  most  of  the  great  scholars  of  France. 
Accordingly  American  students  in  Greek  will  find  it  to 
their  advantage  to  begin,  at  least,  their  work  in  Paris; 
hence  the  work  done  in  other  parts  of  France  will  be 
.passed  by  in  this  brief  summary. 

Courses.  In  Paris,  courses  in  Palaeography  and  Epig- 
raphy are  given  by  Holleaux,  Homolle,  Haussoullier, 
and  FoucART.  As  the  French  conducted  the  important 
excavations  at  Delos  and  Delphi,  an  unprecedented 
wealth  of  material  came  into  their  possession,  and  most 
of  the  inscriptions  thus  found  have  been  interpreted  by 
these  four  scholars.  Courses  in  Greek  History  and  Ge- 
ography are  given  by  Berard,  Bouche-Leclercq,  Glotz, 
and  Babelon.  Here  too  the  abundance  of  original  mate- 
rial has  given  these  scholars  peculiar  advantages. 

Courses  in  Greek  Language  and  Literature  are  given 
by  Maurice  and  Alfred  Croiset,  Puech,  Girard, 
BouRGUET,  Mazon,  Jacob,  Jouguet,  Serruys,  Breal, 
Desrousseaxix,  Ha  vet,  and  Toutain.  Even  this  list 
makes  no  reference  to  the  courses  in  Greek  Art,  Greek 
Philosophy,  Latin,  Sanskrit,  or  to  the  many  courses  of 
great  interest  to  Greek  students  in  allied  departments. 


220  PHILOLOGY 

Periodicals.  The  following  journals  and  periodicals, 
dealing  entirely  or  in  part  with  Greek,  are  published  by 
French  scholars:  "Bulletin  de  correspondance  hellenique" ; 
"Revue  archeologique" ;  "Revue  critique";  "Revue  de 
philologie";  "Revue  des  etudes  grecques";  "Revue  des 
etudes  anciennes";  also  many  other  periodicals  of  a 
more  general  nature  which  frequently  contain  articles 
of  value  on  Greek  subjects. 


Romance  Philology' 

The  student  of  Neo-Latin  naturally  directs  his  steps 
to  one  of  the  Latin  lands,  and  with  double  profit;  for, 
although  the  honor  of  first  placing  Romance  linguistics 
on  a  scientific  basis  was  achieved  by  a  German,  F.  C. 
DiEZ  (i  794-1876),  and  although  Germany  is  still  an 
abundant  and  able  contributor,  the  countries  that  can 
now  boast  of  the  greatest  number  of  truly  eminent 
Romance  scholars  are  Italy  and  France.  Of  these, 
France,  with  her  concentration  of  intellectual  life,  offers 
the  better  facihties  for  study.  From  early  times,  Paris 
has  been  the  center  where  the  leading  men  of  other 
Romance  countries  —  princes,  statesmen,  scholars,  and 
men  of  letters  —  have  sought  their  education  and  re- 
ceived much  of  their  best  inspiration;  and  through 
them,  of  course,  Parisian  influence  has  reached  the 
peoples  from  which  they  came.  At  the  present  day, 
Paris  offers  the  student  an  unequalled  opportunity  to 
come  into  contact  with  cultivated  and  prominent  rep- 
resentatives of  the  various  Romance  nations,  and  to 
learn  to  understand  the  spirit  that  animates  them  — 
that  Latin  genius  which  has  already  given  the  world 
three  great  civilizations,  the  Roman,  the  Neo-Latin 
culture  of  Europe,  and  the  Hispanic  civilization  in 
America. 

The  essential  unity  of  the  principal  Romance  tongues 
was  recognized  by  French  scholarship  as  early  as  the 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  C.  H.  Grandgent,  Harvard  University; 
H.  R.  Lang,  Yale  University;  Kenneth  McKenzie,  University  of 
Illinois;  Raymond  Weeks,  Columbia  University. — Ed.] 

221 


2  22  PHILOLOGY 

1 6th  century,  and  notably  by  H.  Estienne,  who  found 
their  source  in  popular  rather  than  in  literary  Latin. 
To  that  century  belongs  also  the  first  edition  of  the 
invaluable  "  Glossarium  ad  Scriptores  mediae  et  infimae 
Latinitatis"  by  Du  Cange.  Nevertheless,  despite  some 
lexicographical  and  speculative  studies,  Romance  phil- 
ology made  little  headway  for  some  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years.  Then,  between  1815  and  1845,  appeared 
the  stimulating  works, "  Grammaire  romane,"  "Grammaire 
comparee  des  langues  de  I'Europe  latine,"  "Lexique 
roman,  ou  Dictionnaire  de  la  langue  des  troubadours," 
of  F.  J.  M.  Raynouard,  a  pioneer  who  might  have 
anticipated  Diez,  had  he  been  more  accurately  schooled 
in  phonology,  and  less  dominated  by  a  preconceived  idea 
that  mediaeval  Provengal  (or  "Roman,"  as  he  called 
it)  represented  an  intermediate  stage  between  Latin  and 
all  the  modern  forms  of  Romance  speech.  His  "  Lexique," 
with  a  recent  supplement  by  Levy,  is  still  the  standard 
Old  Provencal  dictionary.  The  Old  French  vocabulary 
was  industriously  hsted  by  F.  Godeeroy  in  his  "Dic- 
tionnaire de  I'ancienne  langue  frangaise"  (1881-1902). 
Meanwhile  (1872-79)  E.  Littre  had  published  his 
historical  "Dictionnaire  de  la  langue  frangaise,"  a  model 
for  all  subsequent  lexicographers,  and  in  particular  for 
A.  Hatzfeld,  a.  Darmesteter,  and  A.  Thomas,  authors 
of  the  "Dictionnaire  general  de  la  langue  frangaise" 
(1890- 1 900),  which  marks  a  further  progress  in  the 
treatment  of  etymology,  semantics,  and  pronunciation. 

For  many  years  the  most  commanding  figure  in  the 
Romance  field,  after  the  death  of  Diez,  was  his  pupil, 
Gaston  Paris  (i 839-1 903),  who  first  came  into  promi- 
nence in  1861  with  his  "Etude  sur  le  role  de  I'accent  latin 
dans  la  langue  frangaise."  Beside  him  stood  A.  Dar- 
mesteter (1846-88),  investigator  of  the  formation  and 
the  life  of  words,   and  Paul  Meyer,  who  with  Paris 


ROMANCE  PHILOLOGY  223 

launched  "Romania,"  the  most  famous  vehicle  of 
Romance  studies.  Their  disciples,  all  over  the  world, 
were  the  teachers  of  the  next  generation.  Among  their 
contemporaries  may  be  mentioned  C.  Chabaneau,  an 
authority  on  French  and  Provengal  grammar;  C.Thurot, 
who  traced  the  development  of  French  pronunciation; 
and  M.  Breal,  who,  though  not  primarily  a  Neo-Latinist, 
did  much  to  advance  the  study  of  the  meanings  of 
Romance  words.  The  fruits  of  previous  researches,  and 
of  his  own,  are  embodied  by  F.  Brunot  in  his  vast  and 
still  unfinished  "Histoire  de  la  langue  frangaise  des  origines 
a  1900"  (5  vols.,  1906-13).  Linguistic  science  adopted 
novel  methods  under  the  guidance  of  the  Abbe  Rous- 
SELOT,  the  founder  of  experimental  phonetics,  whose 
great  publications  began  in  1891;  and  of  J.  Gillieron 
and  E.  Edmont,  compilers  of  that  enormous  storehouse 
of  dialect  material,  the  "Atlas  Unguis tique  de  la  France" 
(1902-13).  Much  had  been  already  garnered  in  the 
"Revue  des  patois  gallo-romans "  (1887-92)  and  the 
"Bulletin  de  la  Societe  des  parlers  de  France"  (1893- 
99);  the  former  was  continued  by  L.  Cledat's  "Revue 
de  philologie  frangaise."  More  general  are  "La  Parole" 
(1889-)  and  the  "Revue  de  dialectologie  romane" 
(1909-).  Brunot  has  in  the  Sorbonne  building  an  im- 
portant and  growing  collection  of  speech  records  known 
as  the  "Archives  de  la  parole."  The  facts  revealed  by 
all  these  recent  investigations  have  led  to  a  new  inter- 
pretation of  dialect  phenomena,  exemplified,  for  instance, 
in  "Les  Aires  morphologiques  dans  les  parlers  populaires 
du  nord-ouest  de  I'Angoumois"  (1914),  by  A.  L.  Ter- 

RACHER. 

For  the  comprehensive  study  of  mediaeval  literature, 
the  way  was  prepared,  in  the  Renaissance  and  Neo- 
classical periods,  by  the  collection,  description,  and  trans- 
lation  of  manuscripts;  and   some  important    attempts 


224  PHILOLOGY 

at  collective  presentation  were  made  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury by  Jehan  de  Nostredame  and  Claude  Fauchet,  in 
the  1 8th  by  Montfaucon  and  La  Curne  de  Sainte- 
Palaye.  During  the  first  half,  and  more,  of  the  19th 
century,  literary  scholars  devoted  themselves,  for  the 
most  part,  to  the  pubUcation  of  the  huge  mass  of  docu- 
ments preserved.  Some,  to  be  sure,  by  their  general 
portrayal  of  the  poetry  of  a  bygone  age,  succeeded  also 
in  lending  a  romantic  interest  to  mediaeval  letters: 
R.A.YNOUARD  gave  the  pubhc  not  only  the  "Choix  des 
poesies  originales  des  troubadours"  (18 16-21),  but  also 
''Des  Troubadours  et  des  cours  d'amour"  (1817); 
Faiiriel  wrote  an  admirable  "Histoire  de  la  poesie 
provengale"  (1846);  PauHn  Paris  is  remembered  both 
for  "Les  Manuscrits  frangais  de  la  Bibliotheque  du  Roi" 
(1836-48) ,  and  for  "  Les  Romans  de  la  Table  Ronde  mis  en 
nouveau  language"  (1868-77);  Leon  Gautier  attempted 
a  great  treatise  on  "Lesfipopees  frangaises"  (1865-68). 
The  task  of  synthesis  and  systematic  investigation  was, 
however,  reserved  in  the  main  for  the  latter  part  of  the 
century.  Here  once  more  we  find  the  insight,  the  charm, 
the  enthusiasm  of  Gaston  Paris  and  the  keenness  and 
indefatigable  zeal  of  Paul  Meyer.  Among  the  works 
of  the  former,  the  best  known  are  the  "Histoire  poetique 
de  Charlemagne"  (1865);  "La  Litterature  Frangaise  au 
moyen  age"  (1888),  "Frangois  Villon"  (1901);  to  the 
latter  are  due  the  "Recherches  sur  1' epopee  frangaise" 
(1867),  "Les  derniers  troubadours  de  la  Provence"  (1871), 
"Alexandre  le  Grand  dans  la  Htterature  frangaise  du 
moyen  age"  (1886).  Two  of  the  many  distinguished 
pupils  of  Gaston  Paris,  A.  Jeanroy  and  J.  Bedier,  have 
given  an  entirely  new  turn  to  our  conception  of  the 
course  respectively  of  lyric  and  of  epic  poetry.  Mediaeval 
life  and  learning  have  been  interestingly  investigated 
by  C.  V.  Langlois;  the  stage,  by  E.  Lintilhac.    The 


ROMANCE  PHILOLOGY  225 

printing  of  texts  has  been  continued  by  the  "Societe 
des  anciens  textes  frangais,"  founded  in  1876.  Provencal 
is  represented  by  the  "Bibliotheque  meridionale"  and  the 
"Annales  du  Midi"  (1889-). 

As  to  the  historical  and  critical  study  of  modern 
French  literature,  its  glorious  career,  from  Villemain  to 
Lanson,  is  too  familiar  to  require  specification.  It  is 
enough  to  recall  such  names  as  Sainte-Bexa^e,  Taine, 
Renan,  Scherer,  Brunetiere,  Lemaitre,  Faguet. 
Aside  from  the  more  popular  magazines,  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal journals  today  are  the  ''Revue  d'histoire  litteraire  de 
la  France"  (1894-),  the  "Revue  du  seizieme  siecle" 
(1913-,  succeeding  the  "Revue  des  etudes  rabelaisiennes, " 
1903-12),  the  "Revue  du  dix-huitieme  siecle"  (1913-). 
The  study  of  letters  from  the  comparative  standpoint  — 
first  emphasized  by  Madame  de  Stael  —  has  been  suc- 
cessfully pursued  of  late  by  J.  Texte,  E.  Bouvy,  F. 
Baldensperger,  E.  Picot,  E.  Esteve,  P.  Hazard,  E. 
Haumant,  J.  ViANEY,  E.  Martinenche. 

Italian  and  Spanish  studies,  too,  have  flourished  for  a 
hundred  years.  The  nine  volumes  of  P.  L.  Ginguene's 
"Histoire  litteraire  dTtalie  (1811-19),  A.  F.  Ozanam's 
masterly  treatises  on  "Dante  et  la  philosophic  cathoHque 
au  Xlir  siecle"  (1839)  and  "Les  Poetes  franciscains  en 
Italic"  (1852),  and  the  two  posthumous  volumes  of 
Claude  Fatjriel,  on  "Dante  et  les  origines  de  la  langue 
et  de  la  Htterature  italiennes"  (1854),  were  followed  by  a 
procession  of  authoritative  works  on  the  history,  art, 
music,  and  letters  of  Italy.  Especially  noteworthy,  for 
the  literary  side,  are  the  researches  of  E.  Gebhart  on 
the  Renaissance,  the  mystics,  and  the  story-writers; 
those  of  C.  Dejob  on  the  influence  of  religious  ideas; 
and  those  of  E.  Picot  on  the  relations  between  France 
and  Italy  in  the  i6th  century;  the  books  on  Petrarch  by 
A.  Mezieres,  p.  de  Nolhac,  H.  Cochin,  and  J.  Vianey; 


226  PHILOLOGY 

A.  Thomas's  "Francesco  da  Barberino  et  la  litterature 
provengale  en  Italic  au  moyen  age"  (1883);  P.  Saba- 
tier's  "Saint  Frangois  d'Assise"  (1894);  H.  Hauvette's 
*'Luigi  Alamanni"  (1903),  ''Dante"  (1911),  and 
"Boccace"  (1914);  A.  Jeanroy's  "Carducci"  (1911); 
and  P.  Hazard's  "Leopardi"  (1913).  An  excellent 
summary  is  Hauvette's  "Litterature  italienne"  (1906). 
The  publication  of  investigations  is  facilitated  by  the 
"Bulletin  italien,"  started  in  1901. 

Spain,  after  having  been  revealed  to  France,  in  the  first 
half  of  the  century,  by  such  men  of  letters  as  Prosper 
Merimee,  Emile  Deschamps,  and  Theophile  Gautier, 
by  translators  like  Damas-Hinard,  and  by  scholars  of 
the  standing  of  L.  Viardot,  F.  Denis,  and  P.  Chasles, 
was  assiduously  cultivated  under  the  Second  Empire  by 
A.  de  Latour,  T.  de  Puymaigre,  E.  Lafond  ("Lope  de 
Vega"),  E.  Chasles  ("Cervantes"),  P.  Rousselot  (" Les 
Mystiques").  In  our  time  the  most  distinguished 
names  are  those  of  A.  Morel-Fatio,  editor,  with  E. 
Merimee  and  P.  Paris,  of  the  "Bulletin  hispanique," 
and  R.  Foulche-Delbosc,  editor  of  the  "Revue 
hispanique"  and  director  of  the  "Biblioteca  hispanica." 
With  them  may  be  chosen  for  mention  J.  Cornu,  L.  de 
Viel-Castel,  E.  Merimee,  and  L.  P.  Thomas,  students 
respectively  of  the  Cid,  the  theater,  Quevedo,  and  preci- 
osity. E.  Martinenche  has  treated  of  the  influence  of 
the  Spanish  drama  on  the  French.  Compared  with 
France,  the  Teutonic  countries  have  at  present  few 
students  of  Hispanic  speech  and  letters,  and  none  of 
great  authority.  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  recalled  that 
two  of  the  most  important  Spanish  texts,  the  "Cronica 
rimada  del  Cid"  and  the  "Cancionero  general"  of  1554, 
were  printed  in  France  (in  1846  and  1878),  and  that 
Paris  was  the  seat  of  publication  of  the  sixty  volumes 
of  the  "Coleccion  de  los  mejores    autores    espanoles" 


ROMANCE  PHILOLOGY 


ROMANCE  PHILOLOGY  227 

(1845-72).  The  Bibliotheque  Nationale  and  the  Parisian 
bookshops  are  particularly  rich  in  Spanish  manuscripts 
and  printed  books. 

Instruction  at  Paris.  To  the  Romance  student  of 
today,  Paris  presents  not  only  the  resources  of  the 
Sorbonne,  which  contains  the  Faculte  des  Lettres,  the 
£cole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  and  the  Ecole  des  Chartes, 
but  likewise  those  of  the  College  de  France,  across  the 
street.  Some  Americans  may  be  attracted  also  by  the 
Normal  Schools,  or  by  the  National  Conservatory,  which 
are  open  to  foreigners  under  specified  conditions.  Many 
will  certainly  take  advantage  of  the  special  French 
instruction  offered  to  foreigners  by  the  Comite  de  Patro- 
nage des  etudiants  etrangers  de  la  Faculte  des  Lettres 
(November  to  May),  by  the  Alliance  Frangaise,  186 
Boulevard  St.  Germain  (one  group  of  courses  in  July, 
one  in  August),  and  by  the  Guilde  Internationale,  6  rue 
de  la  Sorbonne  (one  set  of  courses  during  the  school  year, 
another  from  July  to  September).  In  addition  to  the 
collections  of  books  and  records  in  the  Sorbonne  building, 
the  student  has  at  his  disposal  the  Bibliotheque  Natio- 
nale, the  Bibliotheque  del'Arsenal,  the  Bibliotheque  Sainte- 
Genevieve,  the  Bibliotheque  Mazarine,  not  to  mention  the 
Bibliotheque  Historique  de  la  Ville  de  Paris  and  various 
other  special  libraries.  At  1 1  rue  Mazarin  is  an  informa- 
tion bureau  for  students  of  Romance  Philology;  at  96 
boulevard  Raspail,  a  Centre  d'Etudes  Franco-Hispa- 
niques. 

In  the  Faculte  des  Lettres  the  history  of  the  French  lan- 
guage is. expounded  especially  by  F.  Brunot  (author  of 
"La  Doctrine  de  Malherbe, "  1891;  "Histoire  de  la 
langue  frangaise  des  origines  a  1900,"  1906);  French 
literature  and  bibliography,  by  G.  Lanson  (editor  of 
Racine,    Sainte-Beuve,    Voltaire;    author    of    works    on 


228  -  PHILOLOGY 

Nivelle  de  la  Chaussee,  Bossuet,  Boileau,  Corneille; 
"Conseils  sur  I'art  d'ecrire,"  1890;  "Hommes  et  livres," 
1895;  "Histoire  de  la  litterature  franjaise, "  1895; 
"Manuel  bibliographique  de  la  litterature  frangaise," 
1909;  "La  Methode  de  I'histoire  litteraire,"  1911); 
French  and  Provencal  linguistics  and  mediaeval  literature, 
by  A.  Thomas  ("Francesco  de  Barberino  et  la  litterature 
provengale  en  Italic  au  moyen  age,"  1883;  "Essais  de 
philologie  frangaise, "  1902;  ''Melanges  d'etymologie 
frangaise,"  1902;  "Nouveaux  essais  de  philologie  fran- 
gaise,"  1904;  editor  of  Bertran  de  Born,  former 
editor  of  "Romania,"  collaborator  on  the  " Dictionnaire 
general  de  la  langue  frangaise");  southern  European 
literature,  particularly  Provencal,  by  A.  Jeanroy  ("Les 
Origines  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  au  moyen  age, " 
1889;  "Carducci,"  1911;  "Les  Joies  du  Gai  Savoir, " 
1914;  editor  of  Provencal  texts);  Italian,  by  H.  Hau- 
VETTE  ("Luigi  Alamanni"  1903;  "Litterature  italien- 
ne, "  1906;  "Dante,"  1911;  "Boccace,"  1914); 
Spanish,  by  E.  Martinenche  ("La  Comedie  espagnole 
en  France  de  Hardy  a  Racine,"  1900;  "Mohere  et  le 
theatre  espagnol,"  1906);  Rumanian,  by  M.  Roques 
("Le  Gargon  et  I'aveugle,  jeu  du  Xlir  siecle, "  1911; 
author  with  J.  Gillieron  of  "Etudes  de  Geographic  linguis- 
tique, "  191 2;  editor  and  bibliographer  of  the  works  of 
Gaston  Paris;  editor  of  "Romania)."  French  literature 
may  be  studied  also  with  F.  Strowski  ("Pascal  et  son 
temps,"  1907-09;  "Les  Essais  de  Montaigne,"  1906- 
09) ;  H.  Chamard  (editor  and  biographer  of  Du  Bellay) ; 
G.  Reynier  (three  volumes  on  the  novel);  G.  Michaut 
(investigator  of  Sainte-Beuve,  Senancour,  and  La  Fon- 
taine); E.  HuGUET  ("La  Syntaxe  de  Rabelais,"  1894), 
Mediaeval  French  history  is  taught  by  F.  Lot  ("Les  Der- 
niers  Carolingiens, "  1891;  Breton  history,  Hugh  Capet, 
Charles  the  Bald). 


ROMANCE   PHILOLOGY  229 

At  the  College  de  France,  Spanish  hterature  is  repre- 
sented by  A.  Morel-Fatio  ("L'Espagne  au  XVF  et  au 
XVir  siecle,"  1878;  "Calderon,"  1882;  "Etudes  sur 
I'Espagne,"  1888-1904;  "Catalogue  des  manuscrits 
espagnols  et  des  manuscrits  portugais,"  1892;  "Le 
Theatre  espagnol,"  with  L.  Rouanet,  1900;  "Ambrosio 
de  Salazar, "  1901;  "El  Libro  de  Alixandre, "  1906; 
" Historiographie  de  Charles-Quint,"  1913;  editor  of 
"Bulletin  hispanique ") ;  Renaissance  and  modern  French 
literature,  by  A.  Lefranc  ("Les  Navigations  de  Panta- 
gruel,"  1905;  "Calvin,  ITnstitution  chretienne,"  191 1; 
"Rabelais,  (Euvres  completes,"  191 2-13;  "A.  Chenier, 
(Euvres  inedites,"  191 4);  mediaeval  French  literature,  by 
J.  Bedier  ("Les  Fabliaux,"  1893;  "Le  Roman  de 
Tristan  et  Iseult  traduit  et  restaure,"  1900;  "Etudes 
critiques,"  1903;  "Les  Legendes  epiques,"  1908-13). 
The  Neo-Latinist  can  here  follow  also  with  profit  the 
Latin  instruction  of  L.  Ha  vet  ("La  Prose  metrique  de 
Symmaque  et  les  origines  du  Cursus,"  1892;  "Phaedri 
Fabulae,"  1895;  "Manuel  de  critique  verbale,"  191 1), 
and  the  Celtic  courses  of  J.  Lot  (best  known  to  Romance 
scholars  for  his  translation  of  the  "  Mabinogion, "  1899 
and  1913,  and  for  his  "Contributions  a  I'etude  des 
romans  de  la  Table  ronde,"  191 2). 

Advanced  studies  may  be  pursued  at  the  Ecole  des 
Hautes  Etudes  under  the  direction  of  some  of  the  men 
above  mentioned  (Thomas,  Morel-Fatio,  Jeanroy, 
Roques,  Havet,  Lot),  of  J.  Gillieron  ("Le  Patois  de  la 
commune  de  Vionnaz,"  1880;  "Atlas  linguistique  de  la 
France,"  with  E.  Edmont,  1902-13;  "Etudes  de  geo- 
graphic linguistique,"  with  M.  Roques,  1912),  for  dialect- 
ology; of  H.  Gaidoz  in  Celtic  ("Etudes  de  mythologie 
gauloise,"  1886;  works  on  folk-lore  and  mythology) ;  and 
of  J.  Marouzeau,  in  Latin  ("La  Phrase  a  verbe  'etre' 
en  latin,"  19 10).     At  the  £cole  des  Chartes  there  are 


230  PHILOLOGY 

general  courses  in  French  and  Provencal  philology  and  in 
palaeography.  The  Institut  Catholique,  74  rue  de  Vau- 
girard,  offers,  in  addition  to  courses  in  literature,  history, 
and  palaeography,  an  exceptional  opportunity  for  the 
study  of  experimental  phonetics  and  linguistic  science 
under  the  Abbe  Rousselot  (author  of  "Les  Modifica- 
tions phonetiques  du  langage  etudiees  dans  le  patois 
d'une  famille  de  Cellefrouin, "  1891,  and  of  the  "Prin- 
cipes  de  phonetique  experimentale, "  1897-1908). 

Instruction  at  Other  Universities.  Copious  as  are  the 
resources  of  Paris,  some  Americans  may  well  prefer  the 
quiet,  inexpensive  life  of  the  provincial  universities,  among 
which  the  following  are  to  be  recommended  for  Romance 
studies:  Bordeaux,  Montpellier,  Lyon,  Toulouse,  Gre- 
noble, Rennes,  Caen.  All  of  these  have  introduced,  beside 
their  regular  courses,  special  instruction  for  foreigners; 
and  all  have  organized  committees  or  offices  to  minister 
to  the  particular  needs  of  visitors  from  other  countries. 
Grenoble  has  devoted  much  care  to  the  housing  of  stran- 
gers, with  a  view  to  hygiene,  economy,  and  practice  in 
speaking  French.  At  Bordeaux  there  is  a  Maison  des 
etudiants.  Toulouse  has  a  Stadium  for  athletic  sports. 
Several  of  the  provincial  universities  have  developed 
summer  schools  for  foreign  pupils:  the  most  flourishing 
is  that  of  Grenoble,  noted  for  its  excellent  administra- 
tion, its  unusual  facilities  for  the  study  of  phonetics, 
and  its  situation  in  the  midst  of  mountain  scenery;  that 
of  Rennes,  which  is  held  at  St.  Malo,  combines  good 
teaching  with  the  attractions  of  seashore.  For  the 
regular  winter  work,  the  opportunities  presented  by  the 
several  institutions  are  listed  below: 

Bordeaux. —  Romance  philology  and  the  speech  and 
letters  of  southwestern  France,  under  E.  Bourciez 
("Les  Moeurs  pohes  et  la  litterature  de  cour  sous  Henri 


CAMILLE  CHABANEAU  (1831-1909) 


ROMANCE    PHILOLOGY 


ROMANCE  PHILOLOGY  231 

II,"  1886;  "Precis  de  phonetique  frangaise,"  1900; 
"Elements  de  linguistique  romane,"  1910);  Modern 
French  literature,  with  A.  Le  Breton  (studies  on  the 
novel  in  the  last  three  centuries,  1890-1901;  "Balzac, 
I'homme  et  I'oeuvre, "  1905;  "La  Comedie  Humaine  de 
Saint-Simon,"  1914);  Itahan  literature,  with  E.  Bouvy 
("Voltaire  et  I'ltalie,"  1898);  Spanish,  with  G.  Cirot 
(contributor  to  the  "  Bulletin  hispanique ' ') ,  and  H.  Collet 
(" Le  mysticisme  musical  espagnol  au  XV^siecle,"  1913). 

Caen. —  French  Hterature,  under  M.  Souriau  ("Ber- 
nardin  de  Saint  Pierre,"  1915),  and  P.  Villey  ("Les 
Sources  et  revolution  des  Essais  de  Montaigne,"  1908). 

Grenoble. —  Phonetics  and  philology,  with  T.  Rosset, 
director  of  the  Institut  de  Phonetique  ("Les  Origines  de 
la  prononciation  moderne  etudiees  au  XVir  siecle," 
191 1 ;  "Recherches  experimentales  pour  I'inscription  de 
la  voix  parlee,"  191 1);  French  literature,  with  P. 
MoRiLLOT  ("Scarron  et  le  genre  burlesque,"  1888), 
Italian  language  and  literature. 

Lyon. —  French  philology,  under  L.  Cledat  (editor  of 
the  "Revue  de  philologie  frangaise";  "Du  Role  historique 
de  Bertrand  de  Born,"  1879;  "Grammaire  raisonnee 
de  la  langue  fran^aise,"  1894;  a  Dictionnaire  etymolo- 
gique  de  la  langue  francaise,"  191 2).  Courses  in  modern 
French  literature  and  in  Italian. 

Montpellier. —  Comparative  philology,  under  M. 
Grammont  ("La  Dissimilation  consonantique,"  1895; 
"Le  Vers  frangais,"  1913).  French  literature,  with  J. 
Vmney,  (" Mathurin  Regnier, "  1896;  "Le  Petrarquisme 
en  France  au  XVIe  siecle,"  1909),  and  J.  Merlant 
("Le  Roman  personnel  de  Rousseau  a  Fromentin," 
1905;  "De  Montaigne  a  Vauvenarques, "  1914)-  In- 
struction in  Romance  philology,  Spanish,  and  Italian. 

Rennes.—  Yrendi  Hterature,  with  G.  Allais  ("Mon- 
taigne et  ses  lectures,"  1885;   "Malherbe  et  la  poesie 


232  PHILOLOGY 

frangaise  a  la  fin  du  XVIe  siecle,"  1892;  "Les  Debuts 
dramatiques  de  Victor  Hugo",  1903).  French  litera- 
ture and  Breton  folklore,  under  A.  Le  Braz  ("La  Chan- 
son de  la  Bretagne,"  1892  and  1901;  "La  Legende  de  la 
mort  chez  les  Bretons  armoricains, "  1893  and  1902; 
"Au  Pays  des  pardons,"  1904;  "Au  Pays  d'exil  de 
Chateaubriand,"  1909).  Celtic  and  Romance  philology. 
Toulouse. —  Provencal,  under  J.  Anglade  ("Le  Trou- 
badour Guiraut  Riquier,"  1905;  "Les  Troubadours," 
1908).  Spanish,  with  E.  Merimee  ("Quevedo,"  1886). 
Modern  French  literature. 


Oriental  Philology' 

The  beginnings  of  modern  comparative  grammar  date 
from  the  studies  of  the  EngHshman,  Sir  William  Jones, 
and  the  Germans,  Bopp  and  Grimm.  The  translation 
into  French  by  Michel  Breal  of  Bopp's  great  systematic 
work  on  Indo-European  grammar  gave  a  distinct  start 
and  direction  to  linguistic  studies  in  France.  Previous 
investigators  had  dwelt  mostly  on  the  development  of 
the  forms  of  words  and  too  little  on  that  of  their  logical 
content.  To  the  latter  aspect  of  the  growth  of  language 
Breal's  "Essai  de  semantique"  (1897)  addresses  itself, 
and  —  if  it  has  not  already  done  so  —  it  seems  destined 
yet  to  mark  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  linguistics.  Fer- 
dinand DE  Saussure  (1857-1913)  taught  for  a  decade 
at  the  ficole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  and  his  work,  with  that 
of  Breal,  has  had  great  influence  upon  French  science. 
To  continue  the  labors  of  Breal  and  de  Saussure,  Meillet 
was  called  to  the  College  de  France.  His  "  Introduction 
a  I'etude  comparative  des  langues  indo-europeennes'' 
shows  how  a  rigorously  scientific  exposition  is  not  incom- 
patible with  the  grace  of  form  and  charming  luminosity 
that  are  so  characteristic  of  the  French  temperament. 
The  work  had  already  come  to  a  third  edition  in  191 2, 
and  we  may  hope  that  a  long  career  of  continued  use- 
fulness still  lies  before  it.  Under  his  vigorous  leadership 
have  arisen  pupils  of  promise  and  achievement:  to 
mention  only  a  few, —  Dottin  in  Celtic,  Vendryes  in 

^Drafting  Committee:  Franklin  Edgerton,  University  of 
Pennsylvania;  E.  W.  Hopkins,  Yale  University;  C.  R.  Lanman, 
Harvard  University. —  Ed.] 

233 


234  PHILOLOGY 

Latin  and  Celtic,  Gauthiot  in  the  Baltic  languages, 
CuNY  in  Greek,  Ernout  and  Marouzeau  in  Latin, 
Jules  Bloch  in  the  languages  of  India. 

Indology.  The  mystical  and  theological  speculations 
of  Ancient  India,  as  contained  in  the  Upanishads,  were 
first  introduced  to  the  Occident  by  Anquetil-Duper- 
RON,  who  went  to  the  Orient  as  an  employee  of  the  East 
India  Company.  Without  ever  learning  the  sacred  lan- 
guage of  India,  the  Sanskrit,  he  studied  the  Upanishads 
in  a  Persian  translation,  and  from  that  he  made  a  Latin 
version  which  he  published  in  1801-02.  Chezy,  as  pro- 
fessor of  Sanskrit  at  the  College  de  France,  delivered 
his  inaugural  address  on  the  use  and  value  of  that  study 
in  1 81 5.  Fifteen  years  later  he  published  the  text  of 
the  masterpiece  of  the  Hindu  drama,  Kalidasa's  Qakun- 
tala,  in  an  edition  which  after  almost  a  century  is  still 
used  and  respected.  It  contains  not  only  the  drama, 
but  also  the  text  of  the  epic  form  of  the  ^akuntala- 
story  as  it  appears  in  the  Maha  Bharata,  thus  presenting 
the  data  for  an  interesting  study  in  literary  genetics. 

Eugene  Burnoue  (1801-1852)  was  the  successor  of 
Chezy  at  the  College  de  France;  in  him  were  united  a 
prodigious  power  of  work,  endless  patience,  scrupulous 
accuracy,  and  wonderful  divinatory  gift, —  a  combina- 
tion amounting  to  nothing  short  of  genius.  Besides 
being  a  most  eminent  Sanskritist,  Burnouf  was  a  pioneer 
in  the  sacred  language  of  Buddhism,  the  Pali,  and  in 
Tibetan  and  Siamese  and  Burmese,  and  even  in  the 
language  of  the  Avesta,  the  ancient  texts  of  which  he 
interpreted.  His  text  and  translation  of  the  history  of 
Krishna  (the  Bhagavata  Purana)  make  three  folios, 
magnificent,  and  yet  so  ponderous  as  hardly  to  be  usable 
for  every-day  study.  His  "Introduction  a  I'histoire  du 
Buddhisme  indien"  is  the  first  great  Occidental  work 


ORIENTAL  PHILOLOGY  235 

on  the  religion  of  Buddha,  and  it  was  followed  in  1852 
by  his  "Lotus  de  la  bonne  loi,"  the  first  Occidental  trans- 
lation of  an  important  Buddhist  text,  issued  with  a 
score  of  relevant  learned  memoirs.  Burnouf  made  Paris 
the  chief  center  for  Indian  studies  and  Indianists  in  the 
forties;  and  the  power  of  his  personality  and  teaching 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  drew  to  himself  such 
famous  pupils  as  Adolphe  Regnier  and  Barthelemy- 
Saint-Hilaire,  GoLDSTtJCKER,  Rudolf  Roth,  and  Max 

MtJLLER. 

It  is  the  times  of  bitterest  trial  for  France  that  have 
witnessed  some  of  the  most  notable  events  in  the  history 
of  French  Orientalism.  Chezy's  inaugural  was  delivered 
only  a  few  months  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  The 
ficole  des  Hautes  £tudes  was  opened  in  1868.  And  it 
was  only  a  little  after  the  disasters  of  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71  that  a  splendid  trio  of  Indianists  —  Se- 
NART  and  Bergaigne  and  Barth  —  arose  to  give  luster 
to  French  scholarship.  Senart,  a  native  of  Rheims,  by 
his  "Grammar  of  Kaccayana"  (1871),  laid  a  solid  foun- 
dation for  the  further  study  of  Pali,  begun  by  Burnouf. 
The  grammar  was  soon  followed  by  his  Essay  on  the 
Legend  of  Buddha.  Many  of  the  most  important  texts 
relating  to  this  subject  are  contained  in  the  Maha  Vastu; 
Senart  published  an  edition  of  this  in  three  volumes 
(188  2-1 89 7)  which  may  truly  be  called  monumental. 
So  also  are  his  two  volumes  entitled  "Les  inscriptions 
de  Piyadasi"  or  Agoka  (about  250  B.C.),  the  "Constan- 
tine  of  Buddhism,"  containing  very  old  and  impor- 
tant data  for  the  study  of  the  palaeography  and  the 
linguistics  of  India  and  of  its  religious  and  political 
history. 

Abel  Bergaigne  (1838-1888),  pupil  of  a  devoted 
teacher,  Hauvette-Besnault,  inaugurated  the  instruc- 
tion in  Indology  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  founded  a  school 


236  PHILOLOGY 

of  Indianists  who  have  kept  up  and  advanced  the  noblest 
traditions  of  French  science.  His  Vedic  investigations 
—  as  laid  down  in  his  "La  Religion  Vedique  d'apres  les 
hymnes  du  Rig- Veda"  (3  volumes,  1878-83,  to  which 
was  added  a  fourth  volume  of  indices  by  the  American 
Indologist  Maurice  Bloomfield  in  1897),  "fitudes  sur 
le  lexique  du  Rig- Veda"  (1884),  "Quarante  hymnes  du 
Rig-Veda  traduits  et  commentes"  (1895),  3,nd  in  his 
numerous  essays  —  touch  not  only  the  form  and  vocab- 
ulary of  these  venerable  documents,  but  also  their  essen- 
tial substance,  and  indicate  what  further  products  of 
his  learning  we  might  have  expected,  had  notBergaigne's 
hfe  been  cut  short  untimely  by  a  mountaineering  accident 
in  the  French  Alps. 

A  third  great  name  which,  with  those  of  Senart  and 
Bergaigne,  came  to  high  distinction  in  the  seventies,  is 
that  of  the  Alsatian,  Auguste  Barth  (1834-1916),  who 
for  many  years  sent  to  the  "Revue  critique  d'Histoire 
et  de  Litterature"  contributions  of  such  solid  worth  as  to 
make  him  an  authority  of  the  highest  standing  in  the 
world  of  scholars.  Oral  teaching  from  a  professor's 
chair  was  not  feasible  for  him,  on  account  of  deafness, 
but  he  was  in  fact,  to  a  host  of  younger  men,  a  teacher, 
lovable,  loved,  respected,  and  followed.  His  "Religions 
de  rinde"  (1879;  English  ed.,  London,  1882;  Russian 
ed.,  Moscow,  1896)  traces  the  development  of  this 
mighty  factor  of  Hindu  life  from  the  earliest  Vedic 
times  to  those  of  modern  reformers.  The  recognized 
importance  of  his  results  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are 
drawn  directly  from  the  original  sources,  not  taken  at 
second  hand.  For  Indianists,  Barth  was  the  court  of 
highest  appeal.  His  "Bulletins,"  published  from  1880 
to  1902  in  the  "Revue  del'Histoiredes  Religions,"  consti- 
tute at  once  a  history  of  the  progress  of  Indian  studies 
and  a  wonderfully  clear  and  convenient  resume  of  their 


EMILE  SENART  (1847-) 


ORIENTAL   PHILOLOGY 


ORIENTAL  PHILOLOGY  237 

principal  results.  The  modest  form  in  which  they  ap- 
peared, as  review-articles,  is  wholly  out  of  keeping 
with  their  importance,  and  they  have  now  been  re- 
pubHshed,  in  two  dignified  volumes,  as  a  part  of  his 
collected  works.  This  is  most  fitting,  for  his  judg- 
ments are  so  sound  and  well-reasoned  as  to  be  of  enduring 
value. 

It  is  not  easy  to  lose  sight  of  his  "Inscriptions  san- 
scrites  du  Cambodge"  (1885),  a  monument  to  his  skill 
and  industry  as  an  epigraphist,  for  it  is  an  independent 
work;  but  his  minor  articles  form  an  even  greater  testi- 
monial to  his  vast  and  accurate  learning  and  sound 
judgment,  although  they  fail  to  give  an  adequate  impres- 
sion of  their  author's  rare  gifts,  because  it  is  hard  to 
judge  them  as  a  whole,  scattered  as  they  are  through 
some  hundred  and  fifty  volumes  of  a  dozen  different 
periodical  publications.  To  the  devotion  of  his  col- 
leagues, Senart,  Foucher,  and  Finot,  we  owe  the  hope  that 
these  too  will  soon  be  published  as  part  of  his  collected 
works. 

Not  only  Bergaigne,  but  also  his  pupil  Victor  Henry, 
another  Alsatian,  devoted  much  time  and  strength  to 
the  important  task  of  making  text-books.  Bergaigne's 
"Manuel  pour  etudier  la  langue  sanscrite"  (texts,  lexicon, 
grammar)  has  a  host  of  admirably  practical  features; 
and  so  has  Henry's  "Elements  de  Sanscrit  classique." 
The  two  in  collaboration  wrote  also  a  hand-book  for 
Vedic  study.  Henry's  manual  for  Pah,  and  that  of  the 
Danish  scholar  Dines  Andersen,  are  the  best  at  present 
available  for  the  sacred  language  of  Buddhism.  Henry's 
interests  and  activities  were  very  many-sided:  he  has 
left  us  two  manuals  of  comparative  grammar,  excellent 
for  brevity  and  avoidance  of  too  great  technicality;  an 
austere  treatise  (in  collaboration  with  the  Dutch  scholar 
Caland)    on    the    ritual   (Agnishtoma) ;    good    literary 


238  PHILOLOGY 

translations  of  Sanskrit  works;  and  popular  books  on 
magic  and  on  the  literatures  of  India,  etc. 

The  career  of  Sylvain  Levi,  both  as  investigator  and 
as  teacher,  sheds  luster  upon  his  departed  master,  Ber- 
gaigne.  His  youthful  work  on  the  Hindu  theater  ("Le 
Theatre  indien,"  1890)  no  one  has  even  yet  attempted 
to  supplant.  An  elaborate  treatise  upon  the  doctrine 
of  the  sacrifice  in  the  Brahmanas  was  doubtless  sug- 
gested by  his  studies  in  that  direction  under  Bergaigne; 
while  for  his  work  on  Nepal  ("Le  Nepal,  etude  historique 
d'un  royaume  hindou,"  3  vols.,  1905-8),  the  labors  of 
the  eager  traveler  are  joined  to  those  of  the  student  of 
the  written  word.  His  text  and  translation  of  Asanga's 
Exposition  of  the  Doctrines  of  the  Greater  Vehicle  are  a 
weighty  contribution  to  Occidental  knowledge  of  the 
Maha-Yana  Buddhism.  The  Indian  Miscellanies 
("Melanges  d'indianisme,"  191 1)  form  a  volume  written 
by  his  pupils  to  celebrate  his  completion  of  twenty-five 
years  of  service  as  a  teacher.  Among  the  twenty-three 
contributors  (to  mention  only  a  few)  stand  the  names  of 
FiNOT,  FoucHER,  Lacote,  Meillet,  Pelliot,  Ven- 
DRYES, —  men  already  distinguished  for  their  achieve- 
ments in  archaeology  and  exploration,  in  the  history  of 
Buddhism  and  of  Hterature,  and  in  linguistics.  The 
numerous  and  beautiful  works  of  Foupher  upon  Buddhist 
archaeology,  especially  his  volumes  on  the  Greco-Buddhist 
art  of  Gandhara  and  on  Buddhist  iconography,  are  a 
revelation  of  the  charm  of  Oriental  study  in  its  most 
fascinating  aspects. 

Sinology. —  China  and  Chinese  were  made  the  object 
of  scientific  study  by  Frenchmen  —  Jesuit  missionaries 
—  almost  two  hundred  years  ago.  Then,  in  181 5, 
Abel  Remusat  was  made  professor  of  Chinese  at  the 
College  de  France;  and  his  successor,  Stanislas  Julien, 


SYLVAIN  LEVI  (1863-) 


ORIENTAL   PHILOLOGY 


ORIENTAL  PHILOLOGY  239 

who  taught  from  1832  to  1873,  was  the  best  Sinologist 
of  his  day.  His  translation  of  the  life  and  travels  of 
the  illustrious  Buddhist  pilgrim,  Hiouen  Thsang,  serves 
the  Indianists  much  as  Pausanias  serves  the  Hellenists. 
Stagnating  somewhat  upon  the  death  of  Julien,  French 
Sinology  sprang  to  new  life  again  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jesuit  missionaries  Pere  Seraphin-Couvreur  and  Pere 
WiEGER,  and  of  Chavannes,  Cordier,  and  Pelliot. 
Father  Couvreur's  "  Dictionnaire  Chinois-f  rangais " 
(3rd  ed.,  191 1)  has  been  of  inestimable  value  in  pro- 
moting Chinese  studies  in  France;  and  Father  Wieger's 
"Textes  historiques"  serve  admirably  for  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  Henri 
Cordier 's  "Bibliotheca  Sinica"  (2d  ed.,  1908)  is  the 
most  minute  and  learned  Occidental  repertory  of  Chinese 
bibliography.  Edouard  Chavannes  has  published  the 
first  five  volumes  of  his  complete  version  of  the  "  Memoires 
historiques  de  Se-ma  Ts'ien."  Besides  this  vast  historical 
work  may  be  mentioned  his  archaeological  investigations 
contained  in  his  "Sculpture  sur  pierre  en  Chine"  and 
in  his  "Mission  archeologique  dans  la  Chine  septentri- 
onale"  (with  nearly  500  plates).  His  three  beautiful 
and  charming  volumes,  "Cinq  cents  contes  et  apologues, 
extraits  du  Tripitaka  chinois  et  traduits  en  frangais," 
have  already  been  most  fruitful  in  the  hands  of  students 
of  comparative  literature. 

The  exploration  of  Central  Asia  by  Sir  Aurel  Stein, 
Pelliot,  and  others,  has  opened  up  a  new  world  to  stu- 
dents of  India  and  China.  Pelliot' s  finds  in  his  journey 
of  1905-8  were  astounding  beyond  measure.  He  visited 
the  "Grottos  of  the  Thousand  Buddhas,"  examined  the 
manuscripts  (some  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand)  which 
had  been  walled  up  in  the  eleventh  century  (mostly 
Chinese  and  Tibetan,  but  some  in  Indian  writing),  and 
brought  to  France  material  for  the  researches  of  scholars 


240  PHILOLOGY 

for  decades  to  come.  In  191 1  he  was  made  professor  of 
the  languages  and  history  and  archaeology  of  Central 
Asia  at  the  College  de  France. 

Instruction. —  Lectures  for  oriental  students  are 
numerous  and  are  given  in  the  College  de  France  and  at 
the  Sorbonne.  At  the  latter  is  located  the  ficole  pratique 
des  Hautes  £tudes,  which  has  a  section  devoted  particu- 
larly to  the  science  of  religion.  In  addition  to  these 
three,  there  is  a  practical  National  School  for  Living 
Oriental  languages  (Ecole  speciale  des  Langues  orientales 
vivantes),  where  courses  are  given  for  three  successive 
years  in  the  modern  languages  of  Arabia,  Persia,  China, 
Japan,  Siam,  Annam,  India  (Hindustani  and  Tamil), 
Armenia,  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Greece,  with  comple- 
mentary courses  (by  Cordier)  on  the  history  and  legis- 
lation of  Moslem  races  (in  Morocco,  Algeria,  etc.).  This 
school  has  a  special  library  of  75000  volumes  and  numer- 
ous manuscripts  and  maps. 

As  an  example  of  the  wealth  of  instruction  given  in 
one  year  on  Oriental  subjects,  the  courses  offered  in 
1914-1915  may  be  briefly  enumerated.  They  are  chiefly 
one-hour  courses.  In  the  College  de  France,  Maspero 
gave  a  course  on  Egyptian  grammar  and  one  on  the 
religious  and  pohtical  crisis  under  Amenothes;  Fossey, 
a  course  on  Babylonian  law;  Clermont-Ganneau,  a 
course  on  Semitic  epigraphy  and  antiquities;  Lods,  one 
course  on  Hebrew  grammar  and  one  on  the  history  of 
Hebrew  rehgion;  Casanova,  a  course  on  the  Koran 
and  another  on  different  forms  of  Islam;  Sylvain  Levi, 
one  course  on  Indian  literature  and  one  on  the  Sikhs  and 
Gurkhas;  and  Chavannes,  one  course  on  Chinese 
literature  and  one  on  Buddhism  in  China.  There  were 
also  general  courses  on  the  archaeology  of  Central  Asia, 
by    Pelliot;    on    the   languages    and    nations    of    the 


ORIENTAL  PHILOLOGY  241 

Indo-Europeans,  by  Meillet;  and  on  the  history  of  sacri- 
fice by  LoiSY.  A  "public"  course  on  the  art  of  India,  by 
FoucHER,  and  one  on  comparative  grammar,  by  Ven- 
DRYES,  were  supplemented  by  conferences  intended  to 
extend  over  several  years;  thus,  for  example,  Foucher 
gave  in  the  first  year  lectures  on  Sanskrit  grammar, 
which  were  to  be  followed  the  next  year  by  exercises  in 
translation  of  Sanskrit  text  and  during  the  following  third 
and  fourth  years  by  the  study  of  Vedic  and  Pali  texts; 
and  Vendryes  gave  special  courses  on  Irish,  Gothic, 
and  Old  High  German. 

At  the  Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes  fitudes,  following 
about  the  same  order,  we  find  Halevy  offering  three 
one-hour  courses  on  Ethiopic  (grammar  and  texts)  and 
Turanian;  Scheil,  on  Assyrian  texts;  Barthelemy,  two 
courses,  on  Arabic  texts  and  dialects;  and  Lambert 
three,  on  Hebrew  and  Syriac  texts.  Levi  here  offered 
one  course  on  Sanskrit  texts  (reading  one  of  Kalidasa's 
plays)  and  another  on  recent  publications,  his  course 
being  supplemented  by  Bloch  with  a  course  on  Bengali 
texts,  and  by  Bacot  with  one  on  Tibetan  texts.  In 
Avestan,  one  course  was  offered  by  Gauthiot.  For  the 
near  East,  courses  on  Byzantine  philology  and  history 
were  given  by  Diehl  and  Psichari.  Courses  were  also 
offered  by  Clermont-Ganneau,  on  Oriental  antiquities 
(besides  a  special  course  on  Hebrew  archaeology),  and  by 
Isidore  Levi,  on  Alexandrine  literature  and  the  History 
of  Israel, 

In  the  Section  des  Sciences  religieuses,  two  courses 
were  offered  by  Granet  (Chinese  festivals  and  mourning 
texts) ;  one  on  Babylonian  and  biblical  myths,  by  Fossey; 
two  on  the  cult  of  Israel  and  Ecclesiastes,  by  Vernes; 
one  on  Talmudic  and  Rabbinical  Judaism,  by  Israel 
Levi;  and  two  on  the  Koran  and  on  Persian  mysticism, 
by  Clement  Huart;  while  India  was  represented  by  two 


242  PHILOLOGY 

courses  (Upanishad  and  Buddhist  texts)  by  Foucher,  and 
Egypt  by  two,  Egyptian  Religion  and  Book  of  the  Dead, 
by  Amelineau. 

Periodicals. —  The  periodicals  published  by  French 
scholars  on  Oriental  subjects,  and  appearing  in  Paris  under 
the  auspices  of  the  University  or  the  closely  connected 
learned  bodies  whose  members  are  University  professors, 
are  also  worthy  of  notice.  The  "Journal  Asiatique," 
published  by  the  Societe  Asiatique,  is  the  oldest  and  best; 
its  contributors  are  mainly  from  the  University.  The 
"Memoires  de  la  Societe  de  linguistique "  and  the  "Bul- 
letin de  I'Ecole  frangaise  d'Extreme-Orient"  are  also 
valuable  periodicals  in  their  respective  scientific  and 
practical  lines;  while  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  though 
more  general  in  scope,  is  not  less  scientific.  Under  the 
care  of  the  Musee  Guimet  appears  the  "Revue  de 
I'histoire  des  religions,"  an  invaluable  aid  to  all  workers 
in  the  field  of  comparative  religion;  while  the  "T'oung 
Pao,"  now  in  its  eighteenth  year,  and  the  "Revue  Semi- 
tique,"  published  by  Halevy,  are  indispensable  for  the 
Sinologue  and  Semitic  scholar. 

Libraries. —  Besides  the  general  libraries  of  the  College, 
the  Sorbonne,  and  the  Institute,  the  student  of  Orientalia 
has  the  Musee  Guimet  (7  Place  d'lena),  which  contains 
32000  volumes  on  the  history  and  culture  of  the  extreme 
Orient,  and  the  Musee  Indo-Chinois  (Palais  duTroca- 
dero),  which  contains  a  rich  collection  of  Oriental  anti- 
quities. There  is  a  special  Salle  de  travail  (Galerie 
Saint- Jacques)  reserved  for  foreign  students  wishing  to 
obtain  the  Certificat  d'fitudes  fran^aises. 


Semitic  Philology' 

Interest  in  the  Semitic  languages  has  been  a  cherished 
tradition  in  France.  As  Abel  Lefranc  tells  us  in  his 
valuable  "Histoire  du  College  de  France  depuis  ses 
origines  jusqu'a  la  fin  du  premier  empire,"  this  institu- 
tion started  with  two  professors  of  Hebrew,  and  another 
was  added  the  next  year.  From  that  day  to  this,  nearly 
four  hundred  years,  instruction  in  Hebrew  has  been 
given  continuously  in  this  college.  The  diplomatic, 
religious,  and  commercial  relations  of  France  with  North 
Africa  and  the  Near  East  had  been  such  that  practical 
considerations  early  called  attention  to  the  importance 
of  Arabic.  It  is  true  that  not  till  1587  do  we  find  men- 
tion of  an  Arabic  chair  at  the  College  de  France  (the 
incumbent  of  which  was  Arnoul  de  LTsle);  but  nearly 
fifty  years  earlier,  in  1538,  the  celebrated  Guillaume 
PosTEL  was  appointed  for  "  I'enseignement  des  lettres 
grecques,  hebraiques  et  arabiques."  It  was  a  professor 
at  the  College  de  France,  Antoine  Galland,  who  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century  published  his  translation  of 
the  Arabian  Nights.  This  work  was  not  only  one  of 
great  literary  importance,  but  it  has  aroused  and  kept 
alive  an  interest  in  things  Oriental  to  an  extent  difficult 
or  impossible  to  estimate. 

But  it  was  not  till  the  nineteenth  century  that  great 
advances  in  Semitic  philology  were  made.  Napoleon's 
expedition  stimulated  interest  in  the  Near  East,  while 
Champollion's  discovery  of  the  key  to  the  Egyptian 

^[Drafting  Committee:  J.  R.  Jewett,  Harvard  University; 
C.  C.  ToRREY,  Yale  University. —  Ed.] 

243 


244  PHILOLOGY 

language  not  only  was  a  great  achievement  in  itself, 
but  helped  all  Oriental  learning.  The  decipherment  of 
the  cuneiform  writing  opened  up  new  vistas  in  the 
world's  history,  and  in  this  work  French  scholars  took 
a  splendid  part.  The  names  of  Lenormant,  Menant, 
Jules  Oppert,  Botta,  de  Saulcy,  and  others,  are  familiar 
wherever  these  languages  are  studied.  The  Crimean 
War  and  the  French  expedition  to  Syria  in  i860  not 
only  helped  general  interest  in  things  Oriental,  but  the 
latter  gave  an  opportunity  to  Renan  to  make  a  journey 
not  only  to  Phoenicia,  but  also  to  the  Holy  Land  proper, 
results  of  which  appear  in  some  of  those  works  which 
have  made  his  name  so  famous.  Meantime  the  genius 
of  DE  Sacy  (i 758-1838)  had  aroused  new  interest  in 
Arabic,  and  Caussin  de  Perceval  (i 795-1871),  Qua- 
TREMERE  (1782-1857),  and  othcrs,  had  done  fine  work  in 
this  field.  The  conquest  of  Algiers  (1830-1847)  had 
brought  Islam  to  the  very  doors  of  France.  The  occu- 
pation of  Tunis  brought  still  more  Moslems  under 
French  control;  and  with  the  acquisition  of  Morocco 
France  has  become  a  great  Mohammedan  power  and 
must  perforce  give  much  study  and  attention  to  the 
Arabic  language  and  to  Islam. 

In  Archaeology,  French  scholars  have  done  splendid 
work, —  work  in  which  they  have  had  the  intelligent  and 
liberal  support  of  the  government.  Some  of  the  results  of 
this  work  and  this  support  are  to  be  found,  for  example,  in 
the  magnificent  collections  of  Oriental  antiquities  at  the 
Louvre,  in  the  Institut  franf ais  d'archeologie  orientale  du 
Caire,  and  in  such  pubHcations  as  the  "Memoires  pubHes 
par  les  membres  de  la  Mission  archeologique  au  Caire," 
those  of  the  Institut  frangais  just  mentioned,  and  above  all 
in  the  magnificent  "  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Semiticarum." 

Such  well  known  names  as  those  of  Defremery, 
Slane,  and  Garcin  de  Tassy  (Arabic  and  Mohammedan 


JEAN  FRANCOIS  CHAMPOLLION  (le  JEUNE)  (i  790-1832) 


SEMITIC   PHILOLOGY 


SEMITIC  PHILOLOGY  245 

science) ;  Martin,  Duval,  and  Nau  (Syriac  studies  espe- 
cially); De  Vogue,  Berger,  and  Chabot  (Epigraphy); 
Joseph  and  Hartwig  Derenbourg  (Hebrew,  Arabic, 
South  Arabian  and  other  studies) ;  and  Thureau-Dangin 
in  the  field  of  Old  Babylonian  science,  may  also  receive 
mention  here. 

Instruction.  Courses  of  interest  to  students  of  Semitic 
philology  are  given  in  the  following  institutions:  Uni- 
versite  de  Paris;  College  de  France;  Ecole  pratique  des 
Hautes  Etudes;  Ecole  speciale  des  Langues  Orien tales 
vivantes;  £cole  du  Louvre;  Ecole  Coloniale;  Institut 
Catholique  de  Paris;  Cours  de  Langues  vivantes. 

It  must  suffice  here  to  mention  the  men  giving  instruc- 
tion in  Semitic  philology  in  the  first  three  of  these  in- 
stitutions, with  a  statement  of  the  lectures  or  courses 
they  have  offered,  and  of  the  institution  in  which  the 
instruction  was  given.  The  names  of  the  instructors 
are  arranged  alphabetically,  and  in  certain  cases  attention 
is  called  to  some  of  their  pubhshed  works.  The  state- 
ment of  courses  is  based  on  the  "Livret  de  I'etudiant," 
1 9 14-15.  Following  the  name  of  the  instructor  are, 
in  order,  the  name  of  the  institution,  the  title  of  his  chair, 
and  the  subject  of  his  courses. 

Barthelemy    (Adrien).     ficole  des   Hautes    Etudes. 

I.  Classical  Arabic.  Interpretation  of  the  Beyrouth 
Madjani  I'adab.     11.  Arabic  Dialectology. 

Casanova  (Paul).  College  de  France.  Arabic  lan- 
guage and  literature.     I.  The  schools  and  sects  of  Islam. 

II.  Interpretation  and  critical  study  of  the  most  ancient 
parts  of  the  Coran.  (Casanova  is  the  author  of 
"Mohammed  et  la  fin  du  monde,  etude  critique  sur 
ITslam  primitif,"  the  first  part  of  which  was  published 
in  1 911;  but  much  of  his  best  work  has  appeared  in 
the  "Memoires  publics  par  les  membres  de  la  mission 


246  PHILOLOGY 

archeologique  au  Caire/'  and  in  those  published  by  the 
Institut  frangais  d'archeologie  orientale  du  Caire.) 

Clermont-Ganneau  (Charles).  College  de  France. 
Semitic  epigraphy  and  antiquities.  Study  of  various 
Semitic  monuments  and  texts  recently  discovered. — Also, 
at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes:    Oriental  archaeology. 

I.  Oriental    antiquities    (Palestine,    Phoenicia,    Syria). 

II.  Hebrew  archaeology.  (Clermont-Ganneau  has  done 
so  much  valuable  work  in  the  field  of  oriental  archaeology 
and  has  pubhshed  so  much  that  a  complete  bibliography 
would  be  a  very  long  one.  Perhaps  it  will  suffice  to 
mention  here  his  "  Archaeological  Researches  in  Palestine," 
1873-74;  published  for  the  Committee  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund,  2  vols.,  1896  and  1899;  also  his  great 
"Recueil  d'archeologie  orientale,"  of  which  seven  full 
volumes  and  part  of  an  eighth  had  appeared  by  1907). 

FossEY  (Charles).  College  de  France.  Assyrian 
Philology  and  archaeology.  Topics  in  Babylonian  and 
Assyrian  law. — ^Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes.  Assyro- 
Bahylonian  religion.  Certain  Babylonian  and  Biblical 
myths.  (Among  Fossey's  works  may  be  mentioned: 
"La  magie  assyrienne:  etude  suivie  de  textes  magiques, 
transcrits,  traduits  et  commentes,"  Paris,  1902;  "Con- 
tribution au  dictionnaire  sumerien-assyrien,  supplement 
a  la  Classified  list  deBrunnow,"  Paris,  1905-7; "Manuel 
d'assyriologie,  fouilles,  ecriture,  langue,  litterature,  geo- 
graphic, histoire,  religion,  institutions,  art,"  Tomef  I, 
Paris,  1904.) 

Grebaut.  Universite  de  Paris.  Ancient  History  of 
the  Peoples  of  the  Orient.  The  Egyptian  conquests  in 
Asia. 

GsELL  (Stephane).  College  de  France.  History  of 
North  Africa.  I.  History  of  Carthage,  constitution  and 
administration  of  the  Carthaginian  Empire.  II.  Study 
of  the  ancient  texts  relative  to  the  military  operations  in 


SEMITIC  PHILOLOGY  247 

Africa  during  the  first  and  second  Punic  Wars.  (Among 
Gsell's  published  works  are:  "Les  monuments  antiques 
de  TAlgerie,"  2  vols.,  Paris,  1901;  "L'Algerie  dans 
Tantiquite,"  Alger,  1903;  "Histoire  ancienne  de  I'Afrique 
du  Nord,"  Paris,  1913.) 

Halevy,  J.  Ecole  des  Hautes  fitudes.  Ethiopic- 
himyarite  languages  and  Turanian  languages.  I.  Gram- 
mar of  the  Ethiopic  language;  Interpretation  of  texts. 
II.  Interpretation  of  texts  drawn  from  the  ''Corpus 
inscriptionum  semiticarum."  III.  Turanian  languages; 
Grammar;  Interpretation  of  texts.  (Among  Halevy's 
pubHshed  works  are  "Recherches  Bibliques:  I'histoire  des 
origines  d'apres  la  Genese,"  Paris,  1895-1907:  "Melanges 
d'epigraphie  et  d'archeologie  semitiques,"  Paris,  1874. 
In  1893  Halevy  founded  the  "Revue  Semitique  d'epi- 
graphie et  d'histoire  ancienne,"  to  the  pages  of  which  he 
has  contributed  very  extensively.) 

HuART  (Clement).  Ecole  des  Hautes  fitudes.  Islam 
and  religions  of  Arabia.  I.  Interpretation  of  the  Coran 
(Chapter  IV)  with  the  aid  of  Tabari's  commentary. 
II.  Persian  mysticism  according  to  the  Methnewi  of 
Djelal-ed-din  Roumi.  (Among  Huart's  works  are:  "A 
History  of  Arabic  Literature,"  New  York,  1903 ;  "Histoire 
des  Arabes,"  vols.  I,  II,  Paris,  191 2-13.) 

Lambert  (Mayer).  ficole  des  Hautes  fitudes. 
Semitic  languages.  I.  Hebrew:  Grammar,  and  the 
interpretation  of  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy.  II.  Inter- 
pretation of  the  Book  of  Isaiah.  III.  Syriac:  OutHne  of 
Syriac  grammar;  Interpretation  of  texts. 

Le  Chatelier  (Alfred).  College  de  France.  Moslem 
sociology  and  sociography.  The  Chadeliga  in  North 
Africa,  their  religious,  political,  and  social  role.  (Among 
Le  Chatelier's  published  works  are:  "Les  confreries 
musulmanes  du  Hedjaz,"  Paris  1887;  "L 'Islam  au  xix^ 
siecle,"  Paris,  1888.     Some  of  his  most  valuable  work 


248  PHILOLOGY 

has  been  in  connection  with  the  "Revue  du  Monde 
Musuhnan;"  the  first  number  bears  the  date  November, 
1906,  and  he  has  been  director  from  the  beginning.) 

Levi  (Israel).  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes.  Talmudic 
and  Rabbinic  Judaism.  I.  The  Rabbinic  commentaries 
on  the  Psalms.    11.  The  religious  poems  of  Juda  Halevi. 

Levy  (Isidore).  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes.  Ancient 
History  of  the  Orient.  I.  Researches  in  the  Alexandrian 
literature.     II.  History  of  Israel. 

LoDS  (A.).  University  of  Paris.  History  of  the  Hebrew 
religion.  I.  The  beginnings  of  Hebrew  literature.  II. 
The  prophets  of  Israel  and  their  time.  III.  Interpreta- 
tion of  texts.     IV.  Elements  of  Hebrew  grammar. 

LoiSY  (A.).  College  de  France.  History  of  Religions. 
I.  The  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Galatians.  II.  General 
history  of  sacrifice.  (Among  Loisy's  writings  may  be 
mentioned:  "Les  mythes  babyloniens  et  les  premiers 
chapitres  de  la  Genese",  Paris,  1901;  "L'evangile  et 
I'eglise,"  3d  ed.,  1904.) 

ScHEiL  (v.).  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes.  Assyrian 
philology  and  antiquities.  L  Interpretation  of  texts. 
Critical  examination  of  the  translations  attempted  by  the 
first  decipherers.     11.  Deciphering  of  epistolary  texts. 

(Scheil  has  done  so  much  valuable  work  that  his 
name  is  familiar  to  every  student  of  the  cuneiform 
writings;  beyond  a  reference  to  the  texts  which  he  edited 
for  the  "Memoires  de  la  Delegation  en  Perse,"  among 
them  the  Code  of  Hammurabi,  it  would  be  impracticable 
to  enumerate  here  his  numerous  important  publications.) 

Vermes,  ficole  des  Hautes  Etudes.  Religions  of 
Israel  and  of  the  western  Semites.  I.  Researches  on 
the  ancient  organization  of  the  clergy  and  of  worship  in 
Israel.  II.  Interpretation  of  Ecclesiastes.  (Among 
Vernes'  works  may  be  mentioned:  "Histoire  des  idees 
messianiques     depuis     Alexandre     jusqu'a     I'empereur 


SEMITIC   PHILOLOGY  249 

Adrien,"  Paris,  1874;  "Du  pretendu  polytheisme  des 
Hebreux;  essai  critique  sur  la  religion  du  peuple  d 'Israel 
suivi  d'un  examen  de  I'authenticite  des  ecrits  prophe- 
tiques,"  Paris,  1891,  2  vols.). 

Libraries  and  Museums.  The  following  Libraries 
and  Museums  may  be  mentioned  as  having  especial 
value  for  the  student  of  Semitic  philology  and  history. 
A  detailed  account  of  their  several  treasures  worthy  of 
mention  is  here  impossible:  Libraries:  Bibliotheque  de 
r Alliance  Israelite;  Bibliotheque  d'Art  de  d'Archeologie; 
Bibliotheque  du  College  de  France;  Bibliotheque  de 
I'Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes;  Bibliotheque  de  I'ficole 
speciale  des  Langues  orientales  vivantes;  Bibliotheque  de 
I'Ecole  normale.  Israelite;  Bibliotheque  de  I'Ecole  rab- 
binique  centrale;  Bibliotheque  de  I'lmprimerie  Nationale; 
Bibliotheque  de  I'lnstitut  Catholique;  Bibliotheque  de 
rinstitut  de  France;  Bibliotheque  Mazarine;  Biblio- 
theque du  Musee  Guimet;  Bibliotheque  Nationale; 
Bibliotheque  Sainte-Genevieve;  Bibliotheque  de  la 
Societe  Asiatique;  Bibliotheque  de  la  Societe  biblique 
protestante.  Museums:  i.  Musee  du  Louvre;  2.  Musee  de 
la  Bibliotheque  Nationale;  3.  Musee  Guimet;  4.  Musee 
monetaire. 


English  Philology' 

We  all  know  Taine's  "Histoire  de  la  Litterature  ang- 
laise"  which  appeared  in  1864.  It  has  been  translated 
into  English,  and  it  may  be  found,  sometimes  in  an  ab- 
breviated form,  on  the  shelves  of  every  bookshop  and 
among  the  bethumbed  volumes  of  every  library.  This 
book,  despite  its  impatience  of  detail,  may  by  its  astonish- 
ing vogue  introduce  us  at  once  to  some  of  the  dominating 
characteristics  of  French  scholarshipi  French  scholars 
have  a  talent  for  popularizing  great  ideas  in  a  distinguish- 
ed way;  and  they  are  more  profoundly  interested  in 
literature  than  in  linguistics  and  grammar. 

This  is  not  saying  that  linguistic  studies  in  English 
do  not  appear  in  France.  We  may  mention,  at  random, 
Derocquigny,  "A  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  the 
French  Element  in  English,"  1904;  Barbeau,  "On  Dif- 
ferences between  the  use  of  the  Definite  Article  in  the 
Bible  and  in  the  Speech  of  To-day,"  1904;  Biard, 
''L' Article  the  et  les  caracteristiques  differentielles  de 
son  emploi,"  1908;  Thomas,  "On  the  Epic  Verse  of  John 
Milton,"  1901;  and  VERRiER,"Essaisur  lesprincipes  de  la 
metrique  anglaise,"  1909;  but  the  French  incline  to  re- 
gard such  investigations  as  subsidiary  to  the  study  of 
literature. 

Another  history  of  English  Literature,  which  is  the 
work  of  the  French  Ambassador  at  Washington,  and 
which  is  in  the  hands  of  every  serious  student  of  English 

^Drafting  Committee:  Arthur  C.  L.  Brown,  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity; RoLLO  W.  Brown,  Wabash  College;  John  L.  Lowes,  Wash- 
ington University. — Ed. 

250 


ENGLISH  PHILOLOGY  251 

is  Jusserand's  "Histoire  litteraire  du  peuple  anglais." 
This  book,  which  is  also  known  in  an  EngHsh  version, 
appeared  in  several  volumes  from  1895  to  1909.  More 
thoroughly  documented  than  the  History  of  Taine,  more 
historical  in  tone,  more  inclusive  of  different  origins  and 
influences,  Jusserand's  History  illustrates  by  its  clarity 
and  charm  the  prevailing  tendencies  of  French  scholarship. 
Jusserand  is  the  author  of  numerous  other  works  relating 
to  English  literature,  among  which  are:  "La  vie  nomade 
et  les  routes  d'Angleterre  au  xiv^  Siecle,"  1884  (known 
in  an  enlarged  English  version  as  "English  Wayfaring 
Life  in  the  Fourteenth  Century,"  1891);  "Le  Roman  au 
temps  de  Shakespeare,"  1887;  and  "Shakespeare  en 
France  sous  I'ancien  regime,"  1898. 

French  scholars  of  English  have  devoted  the  most  of 
their  energies  to  the  modern  period  which  begins  with 
Wyatt  and  Surrey.  Yet  students  who  go  abroad  with  a 
primary  interest  in  the  literature  of  mediaeval  England 
can  nowhere  find  more  congenial  surroundings  for  work 
than  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  the  spirit  of  Gaston 
Paris,  the  prince  of  mediaevalists,  still  lingers,  and  where 
the  most  eminent  of  his  pupils,  such  men  as  Jeanroy 
and  Bedier,  are  publishing  mediaeval  studies  that  arouse 
the  attention  of  the  entire  world  of  letters.  Legouis' 
"Chaucer,"  191 2,  which  in  the  English  translation  by 
Lailavoix  has  become  a  standard  book  of  reference  in  our 
college  courses  in  Chaucer,  is  an  example  of  French  work 
in  the  older  period  of  English  A  good  specimen  of  a 
French  thesis  in  this  field  is  Miss  Spurgeon's  "Chaucer 
devant  la  critique  en  Angleterre  et  en  France  depuis  son 
temps  jusqu'  a  nos  jours,"  191 1. 

In  literary  criticism  of  the  Modern  English  period, 
the  French  surpass  every  other  foreign  nation.  It  is 
advantageous  for  a  student  of  English  to  learn  to  look 
at  our  literature  sometimes  from  a  foreign  point  of  view, 


252  PHILOLOGY 

and  no  foreigners  have  looked  at  English  so  steadily  and 
so  discerningly  as  have  the  French. 

Beljame,  who  till  1906  held  in  the  University  of  Paris 
the  chair  of  English  which  is  now  occupied  by  Legouis, 
began  a  new  era  in  French  criticism  of  English  by  the 
publication  in  1881  of  his  "Le  Public  et  les  hommes  de 
lettres  en  Angleterre  au  xviii^  siecle."  Other  works  deal- 
ing with  a  period  or  a  movement  have  followed,  for  exam- 
ple: Cazamian,  "Le  Romantisme  social  en  Angleterre," 
1904;  Bastide,  "John  Locke,  ses theories  politiques et  leur 
influence  en  Angleterre,"  1906;  Guyot,  "Le  Socialisme 
et  revolution  de  I'Angleterre  contemporaine,"  1913. 

For  the  most  part,  however,  French  scholarship  has 
turned  to  the  study  of  individual  authors.  The  first  of 
these  studies  in  date  is  Stapeer's  "Laurence  Sterne," 
1870,  and  perhaps  the  most  charming  is  Angellier's 
"Robert  Burns,"  1893.  Only  a  few  others  can  be  men- 
tioned merely  as  examples :  Feuillerat  (a  scholar  who  is 
also  known  for  his  studies  of  English  theatrical  com- 
panies), "John  Lyly,"  1910;  Delattre,  "  Robert  Herrick," 
191 1 ;  Morel,  "James  Thomson,"  1895;  Legouis,  "La 
Jeunesse  de  W.  Wordsworth,"  1896;  Derocquigny, 
"Charles  Lamb,"  1904;  Lauvriere,  "Edgar  A.  Poe," 
1904;  and  Dhaleine,  "Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  sa  vie  et 
ses  oeuvres,"  1905.  These  are  books  of  an  average 
length  of  five  hundred  pages,  which  represent  from  five 
to  ten  years'  toil  for  the  French ' 'doctorates  lettres."  They 
display  the  most  painstaking  research  combined  with  un- 
usual skill  in  expression.  In  each  of  them  the  effort  is 
to  study  the  author's  life  as  throwing  light  on  his  writings, 
and  his  writings,  in  turn,  as  illuminating  his  character. 

Hedgcock's  "David  Garrick  and  his  French  friends," 
191 2,  is  an  expansion  of  his  thesis  which  was  written  at 
Paris.  Masseck's  "Richard  Jefferies:  Etude  d'une  per- 
sonnalite,"  1913,  is  a  good  example  of  a  thesis  for  the  new 


-V 


'^  y'^ 


■•tSiii^f^^ 


-^ 


7 


JEAN  JULES  JUSSERAND  (1855-) 


ENGLISH  PHILOLOGY 


ENGLISH  PHILOLOGY  253 

*'Doctorat  de  rUniversite  de  Paris."  Studies  like  these 
show  how  well  French  scholars  have  guarded  their  pupils 
from  the  pitfalls  of  inaccuracy  and  vagueness,  and  at  the 
same  time  have  stimulated  them  to  sympathetic  literary 
appreciation. 

Instruction  at  the  Universities.  The  student  of 
English  who  goes  to  France  will  naturally  estabhsh  him- 
self at  Paris.  Here  is  the  great  library,  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale,  with  its  3,000,000  volumes,  and  110,000 
manuscripts,  and  almost  unlimited  resources.  Other 
libraries  such  as  the  Bibliotheque  Mazarine,  the  Biblio- 
theque Sainte-Genevieve,  the  latter  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  Sorbonne,  may  also  interest  him  as 
convenient  places  for  all  ordinary  researches.  There  is 
also  of  course,  the  library  of  the  Sorbonne  itself,  with  its 
"salle  de  travail"  and  numerous  special  collections. 

In  the  Faculte  des  Lettres,  Legouis  and  Cazamian  lec- 
ture regularly  on  some  special  topic  in  English  literature 
with  appropriate '  'conferences' '  and  exercises.  In  1 9 1 4-1 5 
Legouis  lectured  on  The  Life  and  Work  of  Edmund  Spen- 
ser, and  Cazamian  on  Special  Topics  relating  to  the  His- 
tory of  Civilization  in  England.  Beside,  the  works  above 
mentioned,  Cazamian  has  written,  "Carlyle,"  1913,  and 
"L'Angleterre  moderne,  son  evolution,"  1914.  Huchon, 
author  of  "George  Crabbe,"  1907,  also  lectures  on  The 
History  of  the  English  Language  and  Its  Anglo-Saxon 
Origins,  with  a  "conference"  in  which  an  Anglo-Saxon  text 
is  read. 

The  student  of  English  will  naturally  take  also  courses 
relating  to  his  special  interests.  If  he  is  pursuing  the 
comparative  study  of  literature,  he  will  follow  the  lectures 
of  Baldensperger,  author  of  various  books,  as  for  ex- 
ample: "La  Litterature,  Creation,  Succes,  Duree,"  1913. 
If  he  is  investigating  the  mediaeval  field,  he  will  hear 


254  PHILOLOGY 

Bedier,  renowned  for  his  "Les  Fabliaux,"  1893,  and  "Les 
Legendes  epiques,"  1908-13,  or  Jeanroy  for  his  "Les 
Origines  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  au  moyen  age," 
1889.  If  he  is  a  student  of  Celtic  influences  on  English, 
he  will  hear  Loth,  known  for  his  "Les  Mabinogion, 
traduits  en  frangais  avec  un  commentaire  explicatif," 
1913,  and  Gaidoz,  as  the  founder  of  "Melusine"  and 
the  "Revue  celtique."  If  he  is  interested  in  palaeo- 
graphy, he  will  be  delighted  by  the  unexampled  facilities 
of  the  ficole  des  Chartes.  If  he  has  a  turn  for  linguistics, 
he  will  hear  Thomas,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Diction- 
naire  general  de  la  langue  frangaise;"  Brunot,  who  is 
writing  the  as  yet  unfinished  "Histoire  de  la  langue 
frangaise  des  origines  a  1900"  (5  vols.,  1906-13),  and 
RoQUES,  one  of  the  authors  of  the  "Etude  de  Geogra- 
phic linguistique,"  191 2.  If  he  is  interested  in  the  renais- 
sance, he  will  follow  the  courses  of  Lefranc,  editor  of 
"Calvin,  Flnstitutionchretienne,"  191 1,  and  of  "Rabelais, 
Oeuvres  completes,"  191 2-13.  If  he  inclines  to  the 
modern  field,  he  will  attend  the  lectures  of  Lanson, 
author  of  the  "Histoire  de  la  litterature  frangaise,"  1895. 
Whatever  his  subsidiary  interest  may  be,  whether  for 
example  in  History,  or  Spanish,  or  Italian,  or  mediaeval 
Latin,  he  will  find  these  subjects  expounded  weekly  by  a 
master. 

In  the  smaller  universities  of  France,  the  chair  of 
English  is  often  occupied  by  a  scholar  of  distinction. 
At  Rennes,  the  professor  of  English  is  Feuillerat,  and 
at  Lille,  Derocquigny;  the  writings  of  these  men  have 
already  been  mentioned.  At  Bordeaux,  the  professor 
of  EngHsh  is  Cestre,  author  of  "Les  Poetes  anglais  et 
la  Revolution  frangaise,"  1905;  at  Caen  is  Barbeau, 
who  wrote  "Une  Ville  d'eau  anglaise  au  xviif  Siecle," 
1904;  and  at  Poitiers  is  Castelain,  author  of  "La  Vie 
et  I'oeuvre  de  Ben  Jonson,"  1906. 


ENGLISH  PHILOLOGY  255 

Although  in  the  provincial  universities  instruction  in 
English  is  not  often  carried  into  the  higher  branches, 
the  serious  student  will  be  sure  to  find  lectures  on  some 
subsidiary  topic  that  will  help  him  to  understand  the 
life  and  the  literature  of  the  past.  At  Bordeaux,  for 
example,  he  may  profit  by  the  lectures  of  Le  Breton, 
author  of  "Le  Roman  au  xvii^  Siecle,"  1898,  and 
"Balzac,  I'homme  et  I'oeuvre,"  1905.  If  he  is  interested 
in  folklore,  he  may  at  Rennes  hear  the  courses  of 
DoTTiN,  known  for  his  "Manuel  d'irlandais  moyen," 
1913,  and  of  Le  Braz,  author  of  "La  Legende  de  la  mort 
chez  les  Bretons  armoricains,"  1893,  and  "Au  Pays  de 
pardons,"  1894.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  numerous 
French  scholars  of  literary  eminence  are  unconnected 
with  a  university,  but  teach  in  a  "lycee,"  as  for  example 
Pellissier,  author  of  "Le  Mouvement  litteraire  au  xix^ 
Siecle,"  1899;  and  "Le  Mouvement  litteraire  contempo- 
rain,"  1901. 


Philosophy 


Philosophy' 

"The  role  of  France  in  the  evolution  of  modern  phil- 
osophy is  perfectly  clear:  France  has  been  the  great 
initiator.  Elsewhere  as  well  there  have  appeared  phil- 
osophers of  genius;  but  nowhere  has  there  been,  as  in 
France,  an  uninterrupted  continuity  of  original  philo- 
sophical creation."  Does  this  claim  of  Bergson  ("La 
Science  frangaise,"  I,  15)  in  behalf  of  French  philosophy 
appear  too  sweeping?  Yet  even  a  slight  survey  of  the 
course  of  French  thought  goes  far  towards  justifying 
it.  Not  that  French  philosophers  have  always  developed 
their  ideas  systematically  and  in  detail;  on  the  contrary 
they  have  shown  a  certain  distrust  of  system-making, 
preferring  instead  to  keep  their  ideas  in  close  contact 
with  the  concrete  problems  of  experience  which  suggested 
them.  The  happy  result  of  this  tendency  is  seen  in  the 
peculiarly  intimate  relation  throughout  French  history 
between  philosophy  and  the  other  main  thought-currents 
of  the  day,  literary  and  art  criticism,  social  and  political 
movements,  religious  reforms,  scientific  discoveries  and 
achievements.  Perhaps  in  no  country  as  in  France  have 
the  current  philosophical  ideas  permeated  and  influenced 
the  great  mass  of  the  people.  No  nation  has  lived  so 
concretely  its  philosophy. 

Two  of  the  most  fundamental  but  opposed  methods 
and  tendencies  in  all  modern  thought  were  initiated  by 
Frenchmen.    Descartes  gave  to  modern  rationalism  its 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  R.  B.  Perry,  Harvard  University;  J.  H. 
Tufts,  University  of  Chicago;  C.  B.  Vibbert,  University  of  Michigan; 
R.  M.  Wenley,  University  of  Michigan. —  Ed.] 

259 


26o  PHILOSOPHY 

method  and  main  outlines ;  but  he  also  left  open  a  way  of 
interpreting  problems  which,  taken  up  and  developed  by 
Pascal,  has  furnished  the  method  for  all  succeeding  anti- 
rationalistic  and  romantic  philosophies.  In  the  eight- 
eenth century  the  Encyclopaedists,  extending  the 
method  of  Descartes  to  psychological,  social,  ethical  and 
religious  phenomena,  sketched  the  outlines  of  all  future 
materialism.  At  the  same  time  Rousseau,  continuing 
the  tradition  of  Pascal  in  his  own  unique  way,  inaugurated 
the  romantic  movement. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
appear  two  thinkers  whose  ideas  and  methods  of  proced- 
ure were  destined  to  develop  into  the  two  most  opposed 
tendencies  in  French  philosophy  to-day.  Maine  de 
BiRAN,  in  his  "Essai  sur  les  fondements  de  la  psychologic 
et  sur  ses  rapports  avec  I'etude  de  la  nature,"  1812,  re- 
affirmed the  tendency,  employed  so  successfully  by 
Descartes,  of  making  self-conscious  analysis  the  basis  for 
metaphysics.  On  the  one  hand,  he  attached  himself  to 
the  Ideologists  who  continued  the  tradition  of  CoN- 
DiLLAc's  sensational  psychology;  but,  on  the  other,  he 
so  deepened  the  scope  of  this  psychology  that  he  made 
it  reveal  the  inner  consciousness  of  man  as  a  continually 
unfolding  dynamic  process  in  which  the  sense  of  effort  is 
central  and  in  which  man's  freedom  is  revealed.  On  the 
basis  of  this  psychological  analysis  Maine  de  Biran  sug- 
gested the  possibilities  of  a  spiritualistic  interpretation 
not  only  of  human  nature  but  also  of  physical  nature. 
This  suggestion,  taken  up  and  developed  by  Victor 
Cousin,  Felix  Ravaisson,  Jules  Lachelier,  fimile 
BouTROUX,  Henri  Bergson,  and  others,  has  continued 
down  to  the  present  day  as  one  of  the  most  original 
strands  of  idealistic  thought  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Unfortunately  Cousin  mingled  Maine  de  Biran's  fruitful 
suggestions    with    diverse    and    incongruous    elements 


PHILOSOPHY 


PHILOSOPHY  261 

into  a  shallow  Eclecticism,  altogether  too  subservient 
to  conservative  political  ends  and  the  requirements  of 
a  school  philosophy.  Ravaisson,  on  the  contrary,  in 
"De  I'habitude"  and  "Rapport  sur  la  philosophic  en 
France  au  xrxe  siecle,"  making  full  use  of  de  B Iran's 
method  and  ideas,  but  also  drawing  on  Aristotle,  Leibnitz, 
and  Schelling,  arrived  at  a  comprehensive  realistic  spirit- 
ualism in  which  nature  appears  as  a  refraction  or  diminu- 
tion of  mind  ('  'esprit") .  Falling  under  the  spell  of  Ravaisson 
but  also  profoundly  influenced  by  Kant,  whose  thought  he 
introduced  into  academic  circles  in  France,  Lachelier, 
in  *'Du  fondement  de  I'induction,"  ''Etude  sur  le  syl- 
logisme,"  and  "Psychologic  ct  metaphysique,"  has 
demonstrated  the  necessity  of  subordinating  ultimately 
physical  causation  and  mechanism  to  final  causation  and 
teleology.  Influenced  alike  by  Ravaisson's  doctrine  of 
habit  as  the  analogy  most  illuminating  in  interpreting 
the  relation  between  the  material  and  spiritual  aspects 
of  our  experience  and  by  Lachelier's  criticism  of  the 
causal  concept,  Boutroux,  in  "De  la  cortingence  des 
lois  de  la  nature, "  and  "  De  I'idee  de  loi  naturelle,"  sketches 
an  evolutionary  conception  of  the  world  in  which  laws, 
conceived  on  the  analogy  of  habits,  are  contingent  and 
ever  in  course  of  development. 

In  this  same  general  current  of  tradition  stands  Berg- 
son.  In  a  brilliant  series  of  monographs, "  Essai  sur  les  don- 
nees  immediates  de  la  conscience,"  "Matiere  et  memoire," 
and  "L'Evolution  creatrice,"  he  has  attempted,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  show  the  fallacy  involved  in  the  method  of 
intellectual  analysis  and  the  inadequacy  of  the  rational, 
mechanical  interpretation  of  the  world  in  which  it  in- 
evitably issues;  on  the  other  hand,  he  has  endeavored  to 
display  the  fruitfulness  of  intuition  as  the  method  which 
can  reveal  the  immediately  given  data  which  make  up 
our  concrete  experience.     On  the  basis  of  these  data  the 


262  PHILOSOPHY 

world  discloses  itself  to  us  as  a  qualitative  process  of 
continuous  change,  unfolding  itself  after  the  manner  of 
our  innermost  psychological  life  of  which  the  very 
essence  is  time.  Closely  associated  with  this  same  ten- 
dency, though  basing  their  conclusions  more  directly  on  a 
critical  examination  of  the  methods  and  results  of  science, 
are  the  three  mathematicians,  the  late  Henri  Poincare, 
Gaston  Milhaud,  and  Edouard  LeRoy.  Milhaud  and 
LeRoy  have  recently  entered  the  ranks  of  professional 
philosophers. 

In  sharp  contrast  to  this  spiritualistic  tendency  in 
French  thought  is  the  current  which  is  characterized,  on 
the  one  hand,  by  the  attempt  to  make  the  study  of  social 
relations  the  starting  point  for  the  solution  of  all  philo- 
sophical problems;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  by  its  method, 
called  Positivistic,  which  maintains  that  explanation 
consists  in  stating  as  accurately  as  possible  the  constant 
relations  which  are  observed  to  hold  between  our  sense- 
impressions,  elimination  having  been  made  of  all  theories, 
hypotheses,  or  other  intellectual  interpretations.  Saint- 
Simon  in  his  "Reorganisation  de  la  societe  europeenne" 
and  numerous  other  works  emphasized  the  first  phase  of 
the  movement.  His  pupil,  Auguste  Comte,  added  to  it 
the  method,  and  thus  became  the  founder  of  Positivism. 
The  systematic  application  of  this  method  to  social  re- 
lations in  his  great  work,"Cours  dephilosophie  positive," 
entitles  Comte  to  the  honor  of  founding  the  strict  science  of 
Sociology.  The  dominant  idea  in  his  doctrine  of  the  classi- 
fication of  the  sciences  —  that  the  sciences  are  arranged  in 
a  hierarchy  of  increasing  complexity  passing  from  mathe- 
matics to  sociology,  and  that  the  subject  matter  of  no 
science  is  reducible  to  the  laws  and  principles  of  another — 
has  become  almost  an  axiom  of  subsequent  thought. 

If  the  positivistic  method  be  interpreted  broadly  as  a 
distrust  of  all  metaphysics  and  as  a  demand  to  keep  to 


PHILOSOPHY  263 

concrete  problems,  especially  the  problems  of  man's 
social  and  historical  life,  then  is  it  possible  to  attach  to 
this  same  tradition  Ernest  Renan  and  Hippolyte  Taine. 
Not,  however,  that  the  standpoint  of  either  of  these 
original  thinkers  can  be  identified  the  one  with  the  other 
or  with  orthodox  Positivism.  Renan,  in  his  "Dialogues 
et  fragments  philosophiques "  and  "L'Avenir  de  la 
science, ' '  supports  the  standpoint  of  scientific  probabilism ; 
while  Taine,  in  his  famous  work  "De  I'intelligence " 
unfolds  and  illustrates  the  method  of  intellectual  analysis. 
Both  Renan  and  Taine  are  quite  as  well,  if  not  better, 
known  for  their  great  historical  than  for  their  philoso- 
phical works.  {VideKensLu:  "Lesorigines  du  Christia- 
nisme,"  "Histoire  du  peuple  dTsrael,"  "Vie  de  Jesus;" 
Taine:  "Histoire  de  la  litterature  anglaise"  and  "Les 
origines  de  la  France  contemporaine.") 

Today  the  tradition  of  Positivism  is  represented  by  a 
very  influential  and  closely  organized  school  with  an  organ 
of  its  own,  "L'Annee  sociologique."  Emile  Durkheim, 
the  recognized  leader  of  the  school,  has  developed  the 
method  of  its  procedure  in  "Les  regies  de  la  methode 
sociologique."  This  method  has  been  carried  out  in  a 
systematic  and  brilliant  manner  by  Dxirkheim,  in  "De  la 
division  du  travail,"  "Le  suicide,"  "Les  formes  elementaires 
de  la  vie  religieuse"  and  other  studies;  by  Levy-Bruhl, 
in  "La  morale  et  la  science  des  moeurs"  and  "Les  fonc- 
tions  mentales  dans  les  societes  inferieures;"  by  C. 
BouGLE  in  "Le  regime  des  castes;"  by  H.  Hubert  and 
M.  Mauss,  in  "Le  sacrifice,"  "La  magie,"  and  other 
studies;  by  Fr.  Simiand,  in  "Le  salaire  des  ouvriers  des 
mines;"  by  M.  Halbwachs  in  "La  classe  ouvriere  et  les 
niveaux  de  vie;"  and  by  numerous  others  in  the  studies 
of  "L'Annee  sociologique." 

Aside  from  its  spiritualistic  and  positivistic  tendencies, 
French  thought  has  shown  its  vigor  and  originality  in 


264  PHILOSOPHY 

several  other  directions.  Taking  as  his  point  of  depart- 
ure the  philosophy  of  Kant  but  stressing  especially  the 
Critique  of  Practical  Reason,  Charles  Renouvier  worked 
his  way  out  to  a  strictly  independent  standpoint  in 
his  "Essais  de  critique  generale."  He  afhrms  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  human  person;  he  shows  how  freedom 
must  be  reintegrated  in  the  very  structure  of  the  world. 
Among  the  thinkers  who  have  attached  themselves  to 
this  standpoint  of  Neo-Criticism  are  the  late  F.  Pillon, 
for  many  years  the  editor  of  the  organ  founded  by 
Renouvier,  "L'Annee  philosophique" ;  the  late  O.  Hame- 
LEsr;  and  L.  Dauriac. 

Drawing  his  inspiration  alike  from  the  philosophy  of 
Plato,  which  he  so  brilliantly  expounded  in  his  earlier 
years,  and  from  the  doctrine  of  evolution  which  made 
such  a  profound  impression  on  French  thought  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Alfred  Fouillee  arrived 
at  an  evolutionary  conception  of  the  world  which  is  both 
strictly  rational  and  teleological.  This  evolution  is 
mediated  through  what  Fouillee  has  called  "idees- 
forces,"  ideas  which  are  at  the  same  time  activities 
tending  to  realize  themselves.  This  doctrine  he  has  set 
forth  in  "L'Evolution  des  idees-forces,"  "La  psychologic 
des  idees-forces,"  and  numerous  other  works.  His  nephew, 
J.  M.  GuYAU,  supported  vigorously  this  same  doctrine 
till  his  untimely  death. 

We  have  touched  upon  only  a  few  of  the  more  promi- 
nent and  original  currents  in  French  thought  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  which  are  still  influential  to-day.  Limi- 
tation prevents  us  from  more  than  mentioning  several 
other  tendencies.  The  profound  movement  in  the  phi- 
losophy of  religion,  generally  known  as  Modernism,  has 
been  developed  within  very  liberal  Catholic  circles  mostly 
by  French  thinkers  such  as  Loisy,  Maurice  Blondel,  La- 
berthonniere,  E.  LeRoy,  Fonsegrive,  Wilbois,  and 


PHILOSOPHY  265 

others.  In  Protestant  circles  Auguste  Sabatier  has  origi- 
nated a  new  and  profound  doctrine  in  his  works : "  Esquisse 
d'une  philosophic  de  la  religion  d'apres  la  psychologic 
et  I'histoire"  and  "Les  religions  d'autorite  et  la  religion  de 
Fesprit."  French  scientists  have  always  shown  a  veritable 
genius  for  developing  the  logic  of  their  own  methods 
and  subjecting  them  to  criticism.  Within  the  last  third  of 
a  century  scientific  logic  and  methodology  has  been  almost 
completely  transformed  by  the  works  of  Claude  Bernard, 
Ant.  CouRNOT,  Paul  and  Jules  Tannery,  Lechalas, 
CouTURAT,  DuHEM,  PicARD,  Perrin,  Borel,  Pierre 
BouTROUx,  Henri  and  Lucien  Poincare,  Block,  Winter, 
Meyerson,  and  many  others.  Highly  important  contri- 
butions have  been  made  to  the  fields  of  ethics,  aesthetics, 
history  of  philosophy,  psychology  and  social  philosophy. 
Inadequate  as  such  a  brief  sketch  as  this  must  be  in  even 
suggesting  the  full  originality  of  French  philosophical 
thought,  still  it  must  suffice,  since  the  prospective  student 
of  philosophy  in  France  is  likely  to  be  more  interested 
in  the  actual  organization  of  the  courses  in  the  French 
schools  to-day  than  in  the  achievements  of  the  past. 

Instruction  at  the  Universities.  Paris.  It  is  a  trite 
statement  that  Paris  is  the  intellectual  center  of  France; 
yet  so  far  at  least  as  philosophy  is  concerned  this  is 
literally  true.  The  courses  at  the  Faculty  of  Letters  of 
the  University  of  Paris  and  at  the  College  de  France 
represent  only  a  small  portion  of  the  entire  philosophical 
activity  of  the  capital.  Outside  the  University  teaching 
staff  are  many  men  prominent  in  the  philosophical 
world:  editors  and  staff -men  of  the  various  publications 
and  men  in  private  life,  such  as  X.  Leon,  H.  Berr,  P. 
Gaultier,  L.  Dauriac,  R.  Berthelot,  L.  Weber,  M. 
Winter,  Fr.  Paulhan,  G.  Palante;  administrators  of  the 
educational  system,  such  as  L.   Liard,   G.   Belot,   J. 


266  PHILOSOPHY 

Lachelier,  E.  Boutroux;  teachers  in  lycees,  colleges, 
private  and  technical  schools,  such  as  D.  Parodi,  Fonse- 
GRivE,  Malapert,  Bazaillos,  Cresson,  Dunan,  Piat, 
Sertillanges,  Halevy,  Lechalas.  It  is  possible  from 
time  to  time  for  the  foreign  student  to  come  into  direct 
contact  with  the  thought  of  some  of  these  men  through 
the  special  courses  arranged  from  year  to  year  at  the 
Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  sociales  and  the  College  hbre 
des  Sciences  sociales  and  through  the  discussions  of  the 
Societe  frangaise  de  Philosophic.  This  latter  society, 
founded  in  1901,  has  become  the  great  clearing-house 
for  philosophical  ideas  in  France.  The  hospitality  of  its 
meetings,  held  monthly  from  December  to  May,  is  not 
infrequently  extended  to  foreigners  through  the  courtesy 
of  some  member. 

At  the  College  de  France  and  at  the  Sorbonne  the 
greatest  freedom  is  allowed  the  lecturers  in  the  choice  of 
the  subjects  which  they  treat;  consequently  no  definite 
description  of  courses  can  be  given.  At  the  College  de 
France  Bergson  lectures  twice  a  week,  one  hour  pre- 
senting some  phase  of  his  own  philosophy,  the  other  hour 
expounding  the  work  of  some  classical  philosopher. 
During  1914-15  and  191 5-6,  LeRoy  of  the  Lycee  Saint- 
Louis  has  been  substituting  for  Bergson.  He  has  been 
lecturing  on  the  modern  criticism  of  experimental  science 
and  its  philosophical  consequences,  a  theme  which  he 
brilliantly  developed  a  few  years  ago  in  a  series  of  studies 
in  "La  Revue  de  metaphysique  et  de  morale,"  1899-1901. 
IzouLET,  who  occupies  the  chair  of  Social  Philosophy, 
usually  treats  of  some  phase  of  French  social  development 
in  the  eighteenth  or  nineteenth  century.  He  is  widely 
known  for  his  work  on  "La  cite  moderne."  Pierre 
Janet,  perhaps  the  most  distinguished  representative  of 
pathological  psychology  today,  treats  of  a  wide  range  of 
subjects  within  his  field. 


PHILOSOPHY  267 

At  the  Faculty  of  Letters  about  a  third  of  the  courses 
are  organized  exclusively  with  reference  to  the  require- 
ments for  obtaining  the  two  French  degrees,  the  "licence" 
and  the  "diplome  d'etudes  superieures,"  and  for  passing 
the  competitive  examination,  known  as  the  "agregation," 
which  aims  at  selecting  teachers  for  the  lycees  and 
colleges.  The  rest  of  the  courses  cover  an  unlimited 
range  of  subjects.  Delacroix,  the  most  distinguished 
representative  of  psychology  of  religion  in  France, 
usually  deals  with  some  phase  of  this  subject.  {Vide  his 
''Essai  sur  le  mysticisme  speculatif  en  AUemagne  au 
XlVe  siecle"  and  "Etudes  d'histoire  et  de  psychologie 
du  mysticisme.")  Brunschvicg  is  best  known  for  his 
study  in  Spinoza  and  his  work  on  the  logic  of  mathe- 
matics, "Les  etapes  de  la  philosophie  mathematique." 
Lalande  always  expounds  some  phase  of  the  logic  and 
methods  of  science.  (Vide  his  "La  dissolution  opposee 
a  revolution  dans  les  sciences  physiques  et  morales.") 
MiLHAUD  has  made  some  remarkable  contributions  to 
the  history,  criticism,  and  logic  of  science  in  his  "Essai 
sur  les  conditions  et  les  limites  de  la  certitude  logique," 
"Le  rationnel,"  and  his  two  series  of  studies  in  the 
history  of  scientific  thought.  L.  Robin  has  charge  of 
the  work  in  ancient  philosophy,  and  F.  Pica  vet  of  the 
work  in  mediaeval  philosophy.  The  former  has  pro- 
duced two  excellent  studies  in  Plato:  "Theorie  platoni- 
cienne  des  idees  et  des  nombres  d'apres  Aristote"  and 
"La  theorie  platonicienne  de  I'amour."  The  latter  has 
written  two  of  the  most  accurate  and  impartial  histories 
of  mediaeval  philosophy  and  theology  ever  produced: 
"Esquisse  d'une  histoire  generale  et  comparee  des 
philosophies  medievales"  and  "Essais  sur  I'histoire 
generale  et  comparee  des  theologies  et  des  philosophies 
medievales."  Of  the  achievements  of  Durkheim  and 
two  of  his  associates  at  the  Sorbonne,  Levy-Bruhl  and 


268  PHILOSOPHY 

BouGLE,  we  have  already  spoken.  Durkheim  occupies 
the  combined  chair  of  Education  and  Sociology,  and 
usually  presents  courses  along  both  of  these  Hues.  Levy- 
Bruhl  always  lectures  on  some  aspect  of  the  history  of 
modern  philosophy.  Bougle  holds  the  chair  of  Social 
Economy;  in  1914-5  he  treated  the  following  subjects: 
"La  formation  du  socialisme  democratique  en  France  de 
1830  a  1848"  and  "Recherches  sur  I'economie  politique 
et  la  morale  sociale."  G.  Dumas,  who  fills  the  chair  of 
Experimental  Psychology,  keeps  closely  to  the  French  tra- 
dition of  treating  this  subject  from  the  pathological 
standpoint.  He  has  written  several  notable  works: 
"Le  sourire,"  "La  tristesse  et  la  joie,"  "Psychologic  de 
deux  messies  positivistes." 

Other  Universities.  Though  Paris  offers  a  wealth  of 
talent  in  philosophy  both  within  and  without  the  Uni- 
versity which  cannot  be  duplicated  in  any  other  center 
in  France,  still  there  is  a  large  number  of  notable  and 
original  thinkers  occupying  chairs  of  philosophy  in 
the  other  fifteen  universities  scattered  throughout  the 
country.  Maurice  Blondel  became  one  of  the  initia- 
tors of  the  Modernistic  movement  through  his  famous 
work  entitled  "L'Action."  At  Bordeaux  are  Brehier, 
who  has  written  one  of  the  best  works  on  Schelling,  and 
Ruyssen,  who  has  produced  some  excellent  studies  in  the 
history  of  philosophy,  especially  on  Kant  and  Schopen- 
hauer. Abel  Rey,  at  the  University  of  Dijon,  has 
vigorously  championed  the  extreme  mechanical  standpoint 
of  science  in  his  two  works:  " L 'Energetique  et  le 
mecanisme"  and  "La  theorie  de  la  physique  chez  les 
physiciens  contemporains."  E.  Goblot,  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Lyon,  has  done  some  very  original  work  in  the 
classification  of  the  sciences.  Foucault,  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Montpellier,  and  Bourdon,  at  the  University 


PHILOSOPHY  269 

of  Rennes,  are  both  well  known  for  their  investigations 
in  psychology.  (Vide  Foucault:  "La  psychophysique " 
and  "Le  reve";  Bourdon:  "De  I'expression  des  emotions 
et  des  tendances  dans  le  langage.")  P.  Souriau,  at  the 
University  of  Nancy,  has  made  very  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  subject  of  aesthetics:  "La  reverie  esthetique," 
"La  beaute  rationnelle,"  and  "La  suggestion  dans  I'art." 
Mauxion  and  Rivaud,  at  the  University  of  Poitiers, 
have  both  contributed  to  the  history  of  philosophy,  the 
former  by  his  works  on  Herbart,  the  latter  by  his  work 
on  Spinoza  and  his  study  in  "Le  probleme  du  devenir 
et  la  notion  de  la  matiere,  des  origines  jusqu'a  Theo- 
phraste." 

But  these  are  only  a  few  philosophers  among  many  in 
the  provincial  universities  whose  achievements  entitle  them 
to  special  mention.    This  sketch  can  only  be  suggestive. 

Since  the  work  in  all  the  French  universities  is  highly 
co-ordinated  under  one  central  administration,  there  are 
no  difficulties  in  passing  from  one  university  to  another 
without  loss  of  time,  grade,  or  privileges.  This  makes 
it  possible  to  seek  out  anywhere  in  France  the  represen- 
tative of  any  line  of  work  in  which  one  may  be  interested 
and  to  pursue  one's  studies  under  his  direction.  If  to 
the  unusually  varied  and  intense  creative  activity  mani- 
fested by  French  philosophy  today  be  added  the  very 
hospitable  and  generous  attitude  of  the  administration 
of  philosophical  studies  toward  foreigners,  especially 
Americans,  there  would  seem  to  be  every  reason  why  an 
increasing  number  of  students  from  the  United  States 
should  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunities  which  France 
offers. 


Physics 


Physics' 

Some  forty  years  ago  a  young  American  physicist 
conceived,  planned,  and  executed  an  experiment  of 
unusual  difficulty.  He  impressed  upon  a  small  electric 
charge  a  speed  so  great  that  this  charge,  while  in  motion, 
exhibited  the  magnetic  properties  of  an  ordinary  electric 
current  —  a  phenomenon  of  first  importance.  The 
manipulative  skill  required  for  this  experiment  was  so 
great  that  more  than  one  European  physicist,  attempting 
to  repeat  the  process,  failed.  Most  noteworthy  of  these 
failures  was  that  of  Cremieu,  working  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Sorbonne,  with  an  equipment  which  left  little 
to  be  desired.  In  the  meantime  (1900),  the  original  work 
had  been  repeated  and  verified  by  another  young  Ameri- 
can physicist,  who  was  invited  by  the  University  of  Paris 
to  come  to  France  and  repeat  the  experiment  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Cremieu,  in  order  that  all  doubt  might  be  re- 
solved and  the  facts  of  the  case  established.  The  invita- 
tion was  accepted;  the  two  men  working  together  dis- 
covered the  cause  of  Cremieu's  negative  results,  and  then 
wrote  up  their  work  in  a  joint  paper  {Phys.  Rev.,  1903) 
which  estabhshed,  probably  for  all  time,  the  original 
discovery. 

This  incident  is  mentioned  merely  as  an  illustration 
of  that  openness  of  mind,  receptivity  for  new  ideas,  and 
love  of  truth  which  is  thoroughly  characteristic  of  the 
French  man  of  science.    It  was  this  same  attitude  of  mind 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  Henry  Crew,  Northwestern  University; 
A.  A.  MiCHELSON,  University  of  Chicago;  W.  C.  Sabine,  Harvard 
University. —  Ed.] 

273 


274  PHYSICS 

which  prompted  the  French  to  invite  another  American 
to  Paris  when  they  decided  to  determine  the  metre  in 
terms  of  the  wavelength  of  Hght. 

A  second  characteristic  of  the  French  scholar  is  a 
quality  of  mind  best  described,  in  terms  of  his  own 
language,  as  "  clarte."  It  is  that  ability  in  clear  exposition 
which  comes  only  to  him  who  has  studied  the  matter 
profoundly.  The  lucidity  of  the  French  treatise  is  that 
of  an  author  who  has  renounced  every  idea  which  he  has 
not  made  thoroughly  his  own. 

A  third  characteristic  of  the  French  investigator  is  of 
interest  to  every  young  man  who  is  thinking  of  studying 
abroad,  namely,  his  vivacious  good  humor,  his  lightness 
of  touch,  his  cheerful,  optimistic  disposition.  No  one 
esteems  these  traits  more  highly  than  the  man  who 
works  in  a  physcial  laboratory. 

The  high  originality  which  is  typical  of  the  French 
mind  may,  perhaps,  be  best  illustrated  by  running  briefly 
over  a  few  of  the  contributions  which  this  nation  has 
made  to  some  of  the  subdivisions  of  physics. 

A  backward  glance  at  the  literature  of  the  world  soon 
convinces  one  that  the  classics  are  not  many  in  number. 
The  mature  student  of  any  subject,  indeed,  finds  the 
facts  and  phenomena  multitudinous,  while  its  principles 
may  usually  be  counted  upon  the  fingers  of  two  hands. 
In  like  manner,  one  who  considers  the  history  of  any 
science  finds  not  many  names  of  the  first  rank.  The  chief 
actors  are  few,  but  of  these  France  has  had  a  very  large 
share. 

If  modern  physics  may  be  dated  from  the  birth  of 
Newton  and  the  death  of  Galileo  (1642)  —  the  time 
when  HuYGENS,  Descartes,  Pascal,  and  Torricelli 
were  in  their  prime  —  and  if  one  makes  an  inventory  of 
fundamental  ideas  introduced  during  the  nearly  three 
centuries  which  have  followed   that   date,  the  chances 


ALFRED  CORNU  (1841-1902) 


PHYSICS  275 

are  that  he  will  be  somewhat  surprised  at  the  role  which 
the  investigators  of  France  have  continuously  played. 
For  the  features  of  a  landscape  upon  which  a  people  hve 
are  not  more  permanent  than  the  intellectual  character 
of  that  people. 

As  regards  Mechanics:  Father  Mersenne  investi- 
gated the  dynamics  of  vibrating  strings  as  early  as  1636  — 
six  years  before  the  birth  of  Newton.  Varignon  shares 
with  Newton  the  credit  of  introducing  the  new  dynamics 
■ — now  called  the  Newtonian  dynamics.  His  "Project" 
appeared  in  the  same  year  with  Newton's  "Principia" 
and  quite  independently  of  it. 

Students  of  Mechanics  can  never  forget  the  three 
brilliant  contemporaries  —  d'Alembert,  Lagrange,  and 
Laplace  —  who  were  living  in  Paris  when  Benjamin 
Franklin  was  there,  so  ably  representing  the  American 
cause.  A  half  century  later  Poinsot  created  our  rota- 
tional dynamics;  later  this  was  followed  by  the  experi- 
mental researches  of  Foucault  on  the  pendulum  and 
gyrostat.  Eminent  contributions  to  the  theory  of 
elasticity  and  wave-motion  came  from  Poisson  and 
Cauchy;  work  along  the  same  line  being  carried  on  to- 
day by  BoussiNESQ  and  Hadamard. 

In  the  domain  of  vibrating  bodies,  the  names  of 
Lagrange,  Fourier,  Lissajous,  and  Koenig  at  once  come 
up.  A  distinct  and  important  contribution  to  thermal 
science  is  recognized  at  the  mention  of  each  of  the  follow- 
ing men,  Carnot,  Clapeyron,  Dulong  and  Petit, 
Regnault,  Becquerel,  Pouillet,  Amagat,  Chappuis, 
Guillaume.  The  wave  theory  of  light  —  the  theory  of 
transverse  vibrations  —  was  created  and  established 
largely  by  Fresnel,  Arago,  Cauchy,  Jamin,  Fizeau, 
Foucault,  Cornu,  and  Mascart. 

Just  as  the  quantitative  side  of  Electrostatics  was 
set  forth  by  Coulomb,  so  the  quantitative  description 


276  PHYSICS 

of  Electromagnetism  was  first  given  by  Ampere,  Biot 
and  Savart.  Fourier's  formulation  of  heat-conduction 
was  early  adapted  by  Ohm  to  the  case  of  electric  conduc- 
tion. Gramme  in  1876  sent  to  America  two  of  his  new 
generators,  equipped  with  ring-armatures  of  his  own 
design;  these  machines  mark  the  beginning  of  a  new  era 
of  large  electric  currents  and  of  electrical  transmission  of 
power. 

In  the  field  of  radioactivity,  Becquerel  and  the 
Curies  are  known  even  to  the  man  on  the  street. 

Instruction  in  the  Universities.  Paris.  To-day  this 
brilliant  succession  of  investigators  is  continued,  in  the 
Faculte  des  Sciences  of  the  University  of  Paris,  by  such 
productive  scholars  as  Boussinesq,  who  is  lecturing  on 
Heat  Conduction;  BouTY,who  offers  courses  on  Thermo- 
dynamics; LiPPMANN,  whose  subject  is  announced  as 
Electrocapillarity  and  Optics;  and  Mme.  Curie,  whose 
topic  is  naturally  Radioactivity.  Still  other  courses  in 
physics  are  offered  by  Leduc    Cotton  Abraham,  and 

KOENIGS. 

In  the  department  of  Mathematics,  certain  other 
lectures  with  a  physical  trend  are  given  by  Appell, 
GuiCHARD,  Drach,  and  others. 

The  astrophysical  investigations  of  Deslandres  in 
the  observatory  at  Meudon  are  known  to  be  of  the 
highest  order  and  along  the  same  fines  in  which  Hale 
in  our  own  country  has  acquired  eminence. 

Many  advanced  students  in  physics  will  be  interested 
in  the  opportunities  for  work  along  the  closely  related  line 
of  Physical  Chemistry  in  which  courses  are  offered  by 
Le  Chatelier,  Urbain,  and  Perrin.  In  the  CoUege 
de  France,  the  work  of  Langevin  in  experimental  physics 
and  Hadamard  in  mathematical  physics  is  well  known 
in  America. 


PHYSICS  277 

Both  at  the  Sorbonne  and  at  the  College  de  France 
the  laboratory  equipment  is  remarkably  complete  and 
quite  available. 

Other  Universities.  But  the  opportunities  which 
France  offers  for  higher  work  in  Physics  are  not  limited 
to  Paris. 

Along  the  western  portion  of  the  country  lie  the  well 
known  Universities  of  Rennes,  Poitiers,  and  Bordeaux. 
At  the  first  named  institution,  Le  Roux  offers  distin- 
guished courses  in  Mechanics,  pure  and  applied;  at 
Poitiers,  one  finds  Garbe  and  Turpain,  in  Physics. 
DuHEM,  whom  the  world  has  just  lost,  has  made  Bor- 
deaux a  familiar  name  in  Physics  everywhere.  Here 
H.  Benard  offers  opportunities  in  general  physics. 

Among  the  many  charms  of  Southern  France  are 
always  to  be  included  the  three  renowned  universities 
at  Toulouse,  Montpellier,  and  Marseille.  Bouasse  and 
CossERAT,  in  Physics  and  Astronomy  respectively,  are 
among  the  leading  men  on  the  staff  at  Toulouse.  Meslin 
is  in  charge  of  Physics  at  Montpellier.  Some  American 
students,  whose  work  is  now  well  known,  have  already 
enjoyed  the  privileges  of  study  at  the  city  of  Marseille, 
at  once  so  ancient  and  so  very  modern.  Here  will  be 
found  a  distinguished  trio  of  productive  scholars  in  L. 
HouLLEViQUE,  C.  Fabry,  and  H.  Buisson.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  better  opportunities  for  research  in  Spectroscopy 
are  to  be  found  in  any  other  place. 

At  Lyon,  a  little  farther  north,  yet  still  in  the  southern 
half  of  France,  the  student  of  Physics  will  find  unusual 
opportunities  with  the  well  known  investigator,  Georges 

GOUY. 

The  above  mentioned  are  but  a  portion  of  the  facilities, 
intellectual  and  material,  to  which  France  generously 
opens  wide  the  door. 


Political  Science 

INCLUDING 

ECONOMICS  AND 
INTERNATIONAL  LAW 


Political  Science* 

Creative  achievement  in  the  legal  and  political  sciences 
has  long  been  eminent  in  France,  as  is  testified  by  the 
early  commentaries  and  treatises  of  Cujas,   Dokeau, 

BODIN,  GODEFROY,  DUMOULIN,  DOMAT,  POTHIER,  ROUS- 

SEAu,  Montesquieu,  and  many  others.  During  the 
early  and  middle  nineteenth  century,  the  literature  of 
political  science  was  enriched  by  the  writings  of  Benjamin 
Constant,  Royer-Collard,  Cbateaubriand,  Guizot, 
Rossi,  de  Tocqueville,  de  Broglie,  Prevost-Paradol, 
Jules  Simon,  Vivien,  Dupont- White,  Laboulaye,  and 
a  host  of  others.  As  early  as  1834  a  chair  of  constitutional 
law  was  established  at  Paris;  it  was  occupied  for  ten 
years  by  the  famous  Rossi,  who  resigned  it  in  1845  to 
become  ambassador  to  Rome.  In  1871  Emile  Boutmy 
founded  at  Paris  the  "Ecole  Libre  des  Sciences  Poli- 
tiques,"  a  school  which  has  done  much  to  stimulate  inter- 
est in  the  study  of  political  science,  and  which  is  today 
attended  by  a  large  number  of  students.  Boutmy  during 
his  lifetime  contributed  much  to  the  literature  of  political 
science,  and  his  works  are  well-known  and  admired  in 
America. 

The  achievements  of  recent  French  scholarship  in  this 
field,  as  in  so  many  others,  have  not  generally  been  ap- 
preciated at  their  full  value  in  America.  In  quantity  of 
output  the  Germans  have  undoubtedly  outstripped  the 
French.     But  in  quality   the  contributions  of    French 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  J.  W.  Garner,  University  of  Illinois; 
L.  C.  Marshall,  University  of  Chicago;  J.  S.  Reeves,  University  of 
Michigan;  A.  P.  Usher,  Cornell  University. —  Ed.] 

281 


282  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

scholars  to  scientific  literature  surpass  in  lucidity,  order- 
liness of  arrangement,  and  attractiveness  of  style,  those 
of  any  other  nation.  It  may  be  seriously  doubted  whether 
any  other  country  at  present  has  a  larger  group  of  distin- 
guished authorities  or  a  richer  literature  in  the  fields  of  in- 
ternational law  and  administrative  science. 

In  more  recent  years  the  literature  of  Constitutional 
Law  has  been  enriched  by  the  scholarly  contributions  of 
Saleilles,  Esmein,  Larnaude,  Jeze,  Duguit,  Hauriou, 
MoREAU,  Barthelemy,  Berthelemy,  and  others,  all  of 
whom  (except  the  first  two)  are  still  active.  Esmein,  who 
died  in  1913,  was  recognized  as  the  highest  authority  on 
French  constitutional  law  and  legal  history.  His  works 
are  many,  the  best  known  being  his  "Histoire  du  droit 
frangais"  and  his  "Elements  de  droit  constitutionnel 
franjais  et  compare."  The  latter  is  recognized  in  France 
as  the  standard  treatise;  it  has  gone  through  many  edi- 
tions, and  is  well  known  in  America.  Of  the  living  scholars 
in  this  field,  Duguit,  professor  in  the  University  of  Bor- 
deaux, occupies  the  first  place  among  the  French  authori- 
ties on  political  science  and  constitutional  law.  His  best 
known  works  are  his  "Traite  de  droit  constitutionnel" 
(2  vols.),  "Les  transformations  du  droit  public,"  "Etudes 
de  droit  public"  (2  vols.),  and  "Le  droit  social";  the 
first  mentioned  work  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  treatises 
on  comparative  constitutional  law  and  government  to  be 
found  in  any  language,  and  for  the  study  of  the  French 
constitution  it  is  indispensable. 

In  the  field  of  Administrative  Science  and  Administra- 
tive Law,  French  scholars  have  long  excelled  those  of 
other  countries.  The  older  treatises  of  Cormenin 
("Questions  de  droit  administratif,"  2  vols.,  1822), 
Serrigny  ("Traite  de  droit  public  des  Frangais,"  2  vols., 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE  283 

1845),  ^^^  Vivien  ("Etudes  administratives,"  2  vols., 
1852),  laid  the  foundations  of  a  great  branch  of  juris- 
prudence such  as  is  not  found  in  America.  This  literature 
was  later  enriched  by  the  more  comprehensive  treatises 
of  Laferriere  ("Traite  de  la  juridiction  administrative," 
2  vols.,  1887-1888;  the  standard  work  on  the  subject), 
of  Batbie  ("Traite  theorique  et  pratique  du  droit  public 
et  administratif,"  7  vols.,  1862),  and  Dueour,  ("Traite 
general  de  droit  administratif,"  8  vols.,  186 7-1 8 70). 
Of  the  living  authorities  in  this  field,  the  best  known  are 
Berthelemy  of  Paris,  whose  "Traite  de  droit  adminis- 
tratif" is  regarded  in  France  as  the  standard  general 
authority  on  French  administrative  law;  Jeze,  likewise 
of  Paris,  whose  recently  published  work,  "Les  principes 
generaux  du  droit  administratif,"  reflects  the  highest 
credit  upon  French  scholarship;  Hauriou,  of  Toulouse, 
author  of  many  works  in  this  field,  the  best  known  of 
which  is  his  "Precis  de  droit  administratif  et  de  droit 
public"  (8th  ed.,  1914);  Moreau,  of  Aix-Marseilles, 
author  of  a  notable  study  entitled  "Le  reglement  ad- 
ministratif;" Bremond;  Jacquelin;  Tessier;  Cahen; 
and  others,  the  titles  of  whose  studies  it  is  impossible 
for  lack  of  space  to  mention.  It  may  be  safely  said 
that  no  other  country  has  produced  so  many  distin- 
guished writers  in  this  field,  or  a  literature  so  extensive 
and  valuable. 

In  the  field  of  International  Law,  both  public  and 
private,  the  French  have  likewise  long  held  a  preeminent 
place.  No  other  country  has  produced  a  larger  number 
of  high  authorities  or  a  more  extensive  and  scholarly 
literature.  It  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than  merely 
mention  the  names  of  the  leading  authorities.  By  com- 
mon consent,  Renault  of  Paris  is  recognized  as  occupy- 
ing the  first  place  among  the  scholars  of  France,  if  not 


284  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

of  the  world,  as  an  authority  on  international  law. 
In  1907  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  Peace  Prize.  As- 
sociated with  him  in  the  University  of  Paris  are 
PzEDELiEVRE  and  PiLLET,  whose  contributions  to  the 
literature  of  the  law  of  war  are  regarded  with  high  respect, 
and  G.  de  Lapr-Adelle,  whose  collection  of  international 
arbitrations  is  well  known.  Boneils,  of  the  University 
of  Toulouse,  is  the  author  of  a  treatise  entitled  "  Manuel 
de  droit  international  public,"  which  is  regarded  as  the 
standard  general  authority  in  French.  The  ponderous 
treatise  of  Pradier-Fodere,  "Traite  de  droit  interna- 
tional public  Europeen  et  Americain,"  in  eight  volumes, 
is  the  most  elaborate  work  of  the  kind  in  any  language. 
Merignhac  of  Toulouse  is  likewise  a  well-known  authori- 
ty, and  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  works,  the  most 
notable  of  which  is  his  "Traite  de  droit  -  international 
public"  in  two  volumes.  Despagnet  is  another  highly 
respected  writer  in  this  field,  and  the  author  of  many 
pubhcations,  his  principal  contribution  being  a  work 
entitled  "Cours  de  droit  international  public."  An  im- 
portant contribution  on  international  law  as  applied  to 
maritime  warfare  is  de  B deck's  "De  la  propriete  privee 
ennemie  sous  pavilion  ennemi";  while  Lemonon  and 
Dupuis  have  both  made  substantial  contributions  to  the 
literature  dealing  with  the  work  of  the  two  Hague  con- 
ferences. Among  other  important  French  writers  in  this 
field  may  be  mentioned  the  older  authorities,  Haute- 
FEUILLE,  PiSTOYE,  Du  Verdy,  Rouard  de  Card,  and 
the  more  recent  authors,  Funck-Brentano,  Sorel, 
RoLLAND,  Vallery,  Politis,  Desjardins,  Duplessix, 
Basdevant,  Imbart  de  la  Tour,  Guelle,  Ferand- 
GiRAUD,  Fauchille  (the  learned  editor  of  the  ''Revue 
Generale  de  Droit  international  public"),  and  Weiss, 
the  author  of  a  monumental  work  in  four  volumes 
entitled  "Droit  international  prive." 


POLITICAL    SCIENCE 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE  285 

The  large  number  of  distinguished  French  scholars  in 
this  field,  the  richness  of  the  literature,  and  the  excep- 
tional Hbrary  facilities,  especially  in  Paris,  easily  make 
the  University  of  Paris  the  most  important  center  of  the 
world  for  the  study  of  international  law. 

In  the  field  of  Colonial  Administration  and  Legislation, 
French  interest  and  scholarship  are  scarcely  less  pre- 
eminent, and  the  literature  is  extensive.  In  this  field 
GiRAULT  and  Larcher  are  the  two  leading  authorities. 
It  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  that  there  is  a 
special  school  at  Paris  for  the  training  of  young  men  for 
careers  in  the  colonial  service.  At  Bordeaux  there  is  a 
Colonial  Institute;  at  Aix-Marseille,  a  School  of  Colonial 
Medicine  and  Pharmacy;  at  Nancy,  a  Colonial  Institute. 

In  Legal  History,  the  researches  of  the  French  have 
been  especially  noteworthy,  and  the  literature  in  this 
field  is  extensive  in  quantity  and  unexcelled  in  quality. 
Among  the  more  recent  French  scholars  who  have  made 
notable  contributions  along  this  line  may  be  mentioned 

FUSTEL  DE  COULANGES,  LUCHAIRE,   GlASSON,  DaRESTE, 

Planiol,  Chenon,  Garraud,  and  Lefebvre.  Naturally 
the  French  have  given  much  attention  to  the  study  of 
Roman  law,  as  is  testified  by  the  treatises  of  Ortolan, 
GiRARD,  Cede,  Gerardin,  Giraud,  Cuq,  Appleton, 
May,  Axidibert,  Huvelin,  and  others.  On  the  theory 
and  philosophy  of  law  there  are  likewise  numerous  treatises 
of  a  scholarly  character,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
the  writings  of  Larnaxide,  Geny,  Duguit,  Lambert, 
MicHOiiD,  Hauriou,  Saleilles,  and  Demogue.  The 
most  comprehensive  treatise  on  the  history  of  political 
theory  in  any  language  is  Janet's  "Histoire  de  la  science 
politique  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  morale"  (2  vols.),  a 
work  which  not  only  bears  the  ear-marks  of  erudition 
but  is  written  in  a  style  at  once  clear  and  fascinating. 


286  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

In  Economic  Science,  French  contributions  to  economic 
theory  have  been  numerous,  and  from  the  outset  have 
exerted  an  important  influence  upon  the  development  of 
economic  thought.  The  term  "political  economy" 
seems  to  have  been  first  used  as  a  title  for  a  general  treatise 
by  Antoine  de  Montchretien  in  his  volume  "Traite 
de  I'Economie  Politique,"  published  in  1615.  His  book 
was  a  formal  exposition  of  the  principles  of  mercantilism, 
which  probably  received  a  wider  acceptation  and  applica- 
tion as  a  State  policy  in  France  under  Colbert  than  in  any 
other  country.  On  account  of  the  extremes  to  which 
mercantilism  was  carried  and  the  evils  that  arose  there- 
from, the  first  vigorous  protest  against  mercantilism 
was  voiced  in  France.  Boisguillebert,  Marshal 
Vauban,  and  Fenelon  contributed  to  that  protest. 
However,  it  was  not  until  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  that  reaction  against  mercantilism 
became  an  open  protest  against  the  economic  policies  of 
the  State.  The  leaders  in  this  movement  were  the 
founders  of  the  Physiocratic  School  of  economic  thought. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  economic  theory,  Frangois 
QuESNAY  was  the  chief  figure  in  this  school.  His  most 
imporant  writings  were  an  article  "Fermiers,"  one  on 
"Grains,"  "Tableau  economique,"  "Maximes  generales 
du  gouvernement  economique  d'un  royaume  agricole," 
and  "Droit  Naturel,"  Among  other  representatives  of 
this  school  the  names  of  Gournay  and  Turcot  should 
be  mentioned.  Turgot,  while  keeping  himself  formally 
distinct  from  the  physiocrats,  was  in  essential  agreement 
with  their  main  doctrines,  and  as  statesman  gave  prac- 
tical application  to  their  theories.  In  fact,  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  French  Revolution  were  to  a  large  extent 
the  realization  of  the  reforms  advocated  by  the  physio- 
cratic school.  In  addition,  their  contributions  had  an 
immediate  and  a  profound  influence  on  the  economic 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE  287 

thinking  of  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Through  the  writings  of  Smith  and  Ricardo,  who  were 
both  clearly  indebted  to  them,  physiocratic  influence 
was  carried  over  into  the  economic  thought  of  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

But  with  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  with 
the  exception  of  J.  B.  Say,  France  neither  produced 
any  important  economic  works,  nor  possessed  a  school 
of  economists,  until  about  1845,  although  Utopian 
Socialism  flourished  in  this  period. 

The  rationalism  of  the  eighteenth  century  led  in 
scientific  circles  to  an  unobtrusive  but  insistent  realism, 
to  a  distrust  of  large  abstractions,  and  to  a  search  for 
objective  facts.  In  the  social  sciences,  this  temper  re- 
sulted in  the  subordination  of  the  theory  of  distribu- 
tion to  the  concrete  problems  of  State  administration  and 
local  amelioration.  Sismondi  and  Saint-Simon  are 
more  characteristic  of  the  temper  of  French  thought  than 
J.  B.  Say  and  Frederic  Bastiat,  and,  as  might  be  sup- 
posed, the  positive  contribution  of  France  in  the  social 
sciences  is  in  sociology  rather  than  in  economics.  Al- 
though the  liberal  views  of  the  eighteenth  century  have 
maintained  a  strong  hold  on  French  opinion,  there  has 
been  a  skepticism  and  a  tendency  to  reaction,  which 
appeared  in  its  extreme  forms  in  the  Utopian  com- 
munism of  Saint-Simon  and  Fourier  and  in  the  sociahsm 
of  Louis  Blanc  and  Proudhon.  This  reaction  against 
the  mechanistic  theories  was  not  without  its  influence 
upon  John  Stuart  Mill. 

The  passion  of  the  realist  for  facts  appears  notably  in 
Le  Play's  monographs  of  families,  in  the  historical  work 
of  Levasseur,  and  in  the  highly  diversified  work  of  P. 
Leroy-Beaulieu. 

About  the  middle  of  the  century,  there  was  a  revival  of 
"classical"  economic  thought,  which  was  associated  with 


288  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

the  writings  of  Donoyer  and  Bastiat.  English  influence 
was  clearly  uppermost  at  this  time ;  and  after  the  tariff 
barriers  between  England  and  France  had  been  largely 
removed  in  i860,  the  influence  of  the  Manchester  School 
became  even  more  pronounced.  The  commercial  agree- 
ment just  alluded  to  was  largely  the  work  of  the  eminent 
French  statesman  and  economist,  Chevalier,  and  the 
Enghsh  free-trader  Cobden. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
two  factors  had  an  important  bearing  upon  the  character 
of  French  economic  thought.  The  host  of  practical 
questions  resulting  from  the  Franco-Prussian  War 
stimulated  research  in  the  direction  of  solutions  for 
these  pressing  problems.  Beginning  in  1878,  this  ten- 
dency received  additional  momentum  by  the  institution 
of  economic  courses  in  the  law  faculties  of  various  French 
Universities,  in  which  the  instruction  was  given  a  more 
practical  turn,  greater  emphasis  being  placed  upon  the 
legal  and  administrative  phases  of  these  problems. 

The  teaching  of  economics  is  profoundly  influenced  by 
this  realistic  tendency.  Economics  is  studied  either  as 
preparation  for  administrative  work  or  in  connection  with 
engineering  and  business.  It  is  taught  in  nearly  all  the 
technical  schools,  and  some  subjects  that  receive  general 
attention  here  appear  only  in  the  curricula  of  the  tech- 
nical schools.  The  economic  problems  of  railroads,  for 
instance,  are  treated  at  the  ficole  des  Ponts  et  Chaus- 
sees.  Opportunities  for  advanced  study  are  most  con- 
siderable at  Paris.  The  larger  choice  of  courses  is  offered 
by  the  Law  School  and  the  ficole  Libre  des  Sciences 
Politiques,  the  latter  a  private  institution  not  subject 
to  the  authority  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 
Some  work  in  economics  is  done  at  the  Ecole  Pratique 
des  Hautes  Etudes,  and  there  are  public  lectures  at  the 
College  de  France.    At  the  Law  School  and  at  the  ficole 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE  289 

Libre,  the  study  of  economics  is  pursued  with  special 
reference  to  meeting  the  examination  requirements  for  the 
higher  branches  of  the  administration.  The  ficole 
Libre  also  offers  a  course  for  prospective  business  men. 
In  the  domain  of  industrial  legislation,  the  greatest 
activity  of  studies  is  found,  as  appears  not  only  from  the 
treatises  of  Pic,  Jay,  Capitant,  Cabouat,  and  Bellour, 
but  from  the  numerous  courses  of  instruction  offered  in 
nearly  every  university. 

Reference  must  here  be  made  to  the  remarkably 
good  work  of  French  writers  on  cost  analysis,  in  which 
they  are  decidedly  in  advance  of  the  United  States,  and 
perhaps  of  other  countries.  Much  of  the  good  practical 
work  which  is  being  done  in  the  application  of  statistics 
to  business  in  America  at  the  present  day  is  a  tardy 
reflection  of  the  method  of  cost  analysis  employed  in 
France.  This  work  has  been  so  fruitful  that  it  may  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  parts  of  economics  where  our 
students  have  most  to  learn  from  France. 

There  is  much  writing  on  economic  theory,  as  each 
professor  usually  publishes  his  course-lectures.  Colson 
has  published  one  of  the  most  extensive  works,  "Cours 
d'economie  politique"  (1901-07),  and  issues  an  annual 
supplement.  The  work  of  Gide  is  well  known  through 
the  translation  so  frequently  used  in  our  colleges.  The 
most  original  work  on  economic  theory  is  that  of  Landry, 
"L'interet  du  capital"  (1904).  The  most  distinguished 
economists  of  the  generation  have  been  Paul  Leroy- 
Beaulieu  and  the  late  !Emile  Levasseur.  The  works 
of  Leroy-Beaulieu  cover  a  wide  range:  "L 'adminis- 
tration locale  en  France  et  en  Angleterre"  (1872); 
"L'etat  moderne  et  ses  fonctions"  (1890);  "Le  coUec- 
tivisme"  (1894,  1909);  "De  la  colonisation  chez  les 
peuples  modernes"  (1874-1908);  "Essai  sur  la  reparti- 
tion des  richesses"   (1883);  "La  question  ouvriere  au 


290  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

xix^  siecle"  (1872);  "Traite  theorique  et  pratique 
d'economie  politique"  (1896);  ''La  question  de  la  popula- 
tion" (19 1 3);  and  "Traite  de  la  science  des  finances" 
(2  vols.,  1 879-1 9 1 2).  Levasseur  occupies  the  first 
place  in  economic  history  with  scholarly  general  treatises : 
"Histoire  des  classes  ouvrieres  et  de  I'industrie  en  France 
avant  1789"  (1859-1901);  "Histoire  des  classes  ouvrieres 
.  de  1789  a  1870"  (1867-1904);  "La  population 
frangaise"  (1889-92);  "La  France  et  ses  colonies"  (1890); 
"Histoire  du  commerce  de  la  France"  (1911-12);  in 
addition  to  these  general  treatises  he  has  also  published 
a  number  of  minor  works  on  economics  and  geography. 
GiDE  has  written  upon  social  problems:  "La  Coopera- 
tion" (1900);  "Les  societes  cooperatives  de  consomma- 
tion"  (1904);  "Economic  sociale,  institutions  de  progres 
social  au  debut  du  xx^  siecle"  (1907-1912). 

In  Finance,  there  are  many  notable  names.  Jeze  has 
confined  himself  largely  to  systematic  treatises,  "Cours 
elementaire  de  science  des  finances"  (1904-1912);  and 
'  *  Traite  de  science  des  finances  "  ( 1 9 1  o) .  C aillaux  in  the 
field  of  taxation  has  written  "L'impot  sur  le  revenu" 
(1910);  and  "Les  impots  en  France"  (1896-1904).  Rene 
Stourm  and  Marcel  Marion  have  given  special  attention 
to  financial  history,  though  both  have  published  in  other 
fields.  CoLSON  is  an  authority  of  note  upon  railroads. 
His  book  "Transports  et  tarifs"  (1906)  is  well  known, 
and  his  "Abrege  de  la  legislation  des  chemins  de  fer  et 
tramways"  is  of  importance.  With  Marlio,  one  of  the 
younger  men,  Colson  presented  a  notable  paper  to  the 
International  Congress  on  railroads  in  19 10.  Renaud 
has  written  much  on  contemporary  labor  problems,  and, 
in  addition,  has  published  a  study  in  Florentine  history, 
("Histoire  du  travail  a  Florence,"  1913.")  He  is  also 
editing  the  "Histoire  universelle  du  travail,"  to  which 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE  291 

he  has  contributed.  Raphael-Georges  Levy,  of  the 
Institute,  is  well  known  in  France  for  his  many  contribu- 
tions on  economics  and  financial  questions,  published 
mainly  in  the  "Revue  des  deux  Mondes." 

Institutions  and  Societies.  The  activity  of  French 
scholars  in  the  several  fields  with  which  this  chapter  deals 
has  by  no  means  been  confined  to  teaching  and  writing. 
Through  the  agency  of  learned  societies  they  have  also 
done  much  to  stimulate  popular  interest  in  the  study  of 
political,  legal,  economic,  and  penal  science,  and  to 
provide  a  body  of  scientific  literature  of  great  value  to 
students.  Thus  the  Societe  de  Legislation  Comparee, 
founded  in  1870,  collects,  annotates,  and  pubhshes  in  an 
''Annuaire,"  of  which  45  volumes  have  appeared,  the 
principal  laws  of  different  countries.  The  society  holds 
meetings  from  time  to  time  at  which  important  legis- 
lative reforms  and  questions  of  public  policy  are  dis- 
cussed by  experts.  The  proceedings  are  published  in  a 
monthly  bulletin,  of  which  45  volumes  have  appeared. 
At  one  of  the  meetings,  in  1902,  for  example,  the  question 
of  the  power  of  the  courts  to  declare  acts  of  the  legislature 
null  and  void  on  the  ground  of  unconstitutionality  was 
discussed  by  a  number  of  the  leading  jurists  of  France, 
and  the  published  proceedings  make  one  of  the  most 
valuable  contributions  to  the  literature  of  the  subject 
to  be  found  in  any  foreign  language.  In  cooperation 
with  the  recently  formed  Societe  d'Etudes  Legislatives, 
which  likewise  publishes  a  bulletin,  it  has  organized  a 
congress  of  comparative  law,  whose  purpose  is  to  study 
the  pubhc  and  private  institutions  of  foreign  countries. 

A  somewhat  similar  body  is  the  Comite  de  Legislation 
fitrangere  of  the  Ministry  of  Justice,  which  translates 
and  publishes  the  latest  codes  of  the  more  important 
countries. 


292  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

The  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences,  one  of 
the  five  academies  of  the  Institute  of  France,  is  a  body 
composed  of  a  small  select  group  of  the  most  distin- 
guished scholars,  which  devotes  itself  to  the  study  of 
questions  of  legal  and  political  science  and  which  offers 
prizes  for  noteworthy  productions.  The  proceedings  of 
the  Academy  are  published,  and  constitute  in  the  aggre- 
gate a  valuable  body  of  literature  on  the  subject  with 
which  they  deal. 

Still  another  learned  society  which  may  be  mentioned 
in  this  connection  is  the  Societe  generale  des  Prisons. 
It  is  composed  mainly  of  professors  of  criminal  law,  crimin- 
ology, and  penology,  magistrates,  lawyers,  and  adminis- 
trators of  prisons,  and  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  ques- 
tions of  criminal  law,  penology,  and  the  administration 
of  penal  institutions.  The  Society  publishes  a  valuable 
monthly  periodical,  the  "Revue  penitentiaire  et  de  droit 
penal,"  of  which  40  volumes  have  appeared. 

The  Institut  de  Droit  International,  although  its 
membership  is  not  limited  to  Frenchmen,  was  neverthe- 
less founded  largely  through  the  initiative  of  French 
scholars;  they  constitute  a  large  and  influential  part  of 
its  membership  and  its  proceedings  are  published  in  the 
French  language.  The  Institute  holds  annual  sessions 
at  different  places  in  Europe  and  publishes  an  "  Annuaire" 
(26  volumes  to  date)  containing  a  report  of  its  proceed- 
ings, together  with  the  texts,  papers,  reports,  drafts  of 
projects,  etc.  The  Institute  has  framed  proposed  codes 
of  international  law,  dealing  with  such  matters  as  aerial 
navigation,  maritime  war,  land  warfare,  etc.;  on  account 
of  the  distinguished  reputations  of  the  members,  the 
views  of  the  Institute  have  exerted  a  marked  influence 
on  the  recent  development  of  international  law. 

In  addition  to  the  publications  of  learned  societies  may 
be  mentioned  certain  publications  of  the  universities. 


JEAN-BAPTISTE  SAY  (i 767-1832) 


POLITICAL   SCIENCE 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE  293 

Notable  are  the  "Annales  de  rUniversite  de  Lyon," 
which  were  started  in  1891  and  of  which  100  volumes 
have  already  appeared.  The  first  40  volumes  contain 
publications  dealing  with  the  sciences  in  general;  the 
others  fall  into  two  groups:  first,  those  which  deal  with 
the  medical  sciences;  and,  second,  those  which  deal  with 
law  and  letters.  This  collection  is  the  most  extensive 
and  valuable  of  university  publications  in  France,  em- 
bracing as  it  does  the  results  of  original  work  and  research. 
The  University  of  Rennes  has  published,  since  1885,  the 
"Annales  de  Bretagne,"  and  since  1906  a  series  entitled 
"Les  travaux  juridiques  et  economiques."  Other  uni- 
versity publications  in  France  of  a  serial  character  are: 
the  "Annales  de  1 'Universite  de  Grenoble,"  which  have 
appeared  regularly  since  1890;  the  "Revue  bourgui- 
gnonne,"  which  has  been  published  by  the  University  of 
Dijon  since  1891;  the  "Annales  des  Facultes  de  droit 
et  des  lettres  d'Aix"  since  1905;  and  the  "Travaux  de  la 
conference  de  droit  penal"  of  the  Faculty  of  Law  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  since  1910. 

Periodicals.  The  interest  and  activities  of  the  French 
in  the  legal,  political,  and  economic  sciences  are  still 
further  reflected  in  the  numerous  reviews  and  periodicals 
which  they  publish.  In  addition  to  those  already  men- 
tioned, and  not  enumerating  those  devoted  to  private  law, 
the  best  known  are :  the  "Journal  de  Droit  International 
Prive,"  which  has  appeared  regularly  since  1874,  and  has 
since  its  foundation  been  edited  by  the  well-known 
scholar,  Edouard  Clunet;  the  "Revue  Generale  du 
Droit  International  Public,"  now  in  its  twenty- third 
year,  edited  by  Fauchille;  the  "Revue  de  Droit  PubHc 
et  de  la  Science  Politique,"  edited  by  Jeze,  now  in  its 
thirty- third  volume;  the  "Revue  de  Science  et  de  Legis- 
lation financieres,"   also  edited  by  Jeze;   the   "Revue 


294  POLITICAL   SCIENCE 

Generale  de  Droit,  de  Legislation  et  de  Jurisprudence," 
founded  in  1877;  the  "Revue  des  Sciences  politiques" 
(formerly  known  as  the  "Annales  des  sciences  poli- 
tiques"), published  by  the  Ecole  des  Sciences  Politiques 
{^T)  vols.);  the  "Revue  Politique  et  Parlementaire," 
founded  in  1895,  and  edited  by  Faure  (87  vols.);  the 
"Revue  de  Droit  Internationale  Prive  et  de  Droit  Penal 
International,"  founded  in  1905;  "Questions  pratiques 
de  Legislation  ouvriere  et  d'Economie  sociale";  the 
"Revue  Generale  d' Administration "  (38  vols.);  the 
"Revue  Internationale  du  Droit  Maritime"  (29  vols.); 
the  "Revue  Communale"  (24  vols.);  the  "Revue  d'His- 
toire  Diplomatique"  (27  vols.);  and  the  "Archives 
Diplomatiques "  (129  vols.)  All  of  these  are  scientific 
publications  containing  articles  by  experts,  chroniques, 
book  reviews,  texts  of  important  documents,  and  the 
like. 

For  the  convenience  of  students,  teachers,  and  others, 
there  is  provided  a  great  variety  of  collections  of  laws, 
decisions  of  judicial  and  administrative  courts,  bulletins, 
"annuaires,"  "repertoires,"  "dictionnaires,"  etc.  Among 
them  may  be  mentioned  the  great  Collection  of  Duvergier 
in  115  volumes,  containing  the  texts  of  all  the  laws, 
decrees,  ordinances,  etc.,  issued  by  the  French  govern- 
ment since  1788;  the  annals  of  the  Senate  and  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  embracing  now  more  than  450  volumes;  the 
"Annuaire"  of  French  legislation  in  some  40  volumes; 
the  "Annuaire"  of  foreign  legislation,  about  45  volumes; 
a  collection  of  the  principal  codes  of  the  world,  nearly 
30  volumes;  Sirey's  collection  of  the  laws  and  "arretes," 
about  115  volumes;  Dalloz's  "Recueil"  of  laws  and 
decisions,  70  volumes;  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of 
State  since  1798,  over  240  volumes;  Dalloz's  "Juris- 
prudence Generale"  (1887-1897),  69  volumes,  supplement 
(1887-1897),  19  volumes;  Riviere  and  Weiss's  "Pandectes 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE  295 

frangaises,"  63  volumes;  Bequet's  "Repertoire  de  Droit 
Administratif,"  over  30  volumes;  and  various  others. 

Courses  of  Instruction.  Instruction  in  political 
science,  public  law,  international  law,  and  economics 
in  the  French  universities  is  invariably  given  in  the 
Faculty  of  Law,  thus  indicating  a  closer  connection  be- 
tween those  fields  and  that  of  law  than  generally  exists 
in  American  universities.  Of  the  sixteen  universities, 
all  (except  those  of  Besangon  and  Clermont-Ferrand) 
maintain  such  faculties,  and  therefore  offer  instruction 
in  the  above  mentioned  subjects.  All  of  the  law  faculties 
grant  certificates  of  capacity  and  the  degree  of  Licence 
en  Droit,  and  those  of  Paris,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille, 
Lyon,  and  Nancy  are  empowered  to  grant  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Law.  The  latter  degree  is  of  two  kinds,  de- 
pending on  the  nature  of  the  course  pursued  by  the 
candidate:  first,  the  doctorate  in  the  juridical  sciences, 
and,  second,  the  doctorate  in  the  political  and  economic 
sciences.  Candidates  for  the  doctor's  degree  must  have 
taken  their  Licence  in  law  from  a  French  university  or 
have  graduated  from  an  acceptable  foreign  university. 

Paris.  For  the  study  of  the  subjects  with  which  this 
chapter  deals,  the  University  of  Paris,  of  course,  ranks 
first.  Its  Faculty  of  Law  numbers  between  forty  and 
fifty  professors,  agreges,  and  charges.  It  offers  a  large 
and  varied  number  of  courses,  in  civil,  commercial,  and 
criminal  law,  Roman  law,  legal  history,  constitutional, 
administrative,  and  international  law  (both  public  and 
private),  political  economy,  public  finance,  statistics, 
industrial  and  social  legislation,  comparative  legislation 
and  jurisprudence,  diplomatic  law  and  history,  colonial 
law  and  administration,  etc.  During  the  year  preceding 
the  outbreak  of  the  great  war  in  191 4,  more  than  8000 
students — about  one  half  the  total  registration  of  the 


296  POLITICAL   SCIENCE 

university — were  enrolled  in  the  Faculty  of  Law.  Viewed, 
therefore,  from  the  number  of  students  enrolled,  the 
great  variety  of  courses  offered,  and  the  number  of  dis- 
tinguished professors,  the  Law  Faculty  of  Paris  leads 
that  of  all  other  universities.  It  may  be  justly  regarded 
as  the  most  important  center  of  the  world  for  the  study 
of  public  law,  and  political  science.  Among  the  most 
distinguished  scholars  who  compose  the  Faculty  of  Law 
may  be  mentioned  Berthelemy  and  Jacquelin  in  ad- 
ministrative law;  Barthelemy  in  constitutional  and  ad- 
ministrative law;  Jeze  in  administrative  law  and  public 
finance;  Larnaude  in  constitutional  law;  Flach  in  com- 
parative legislation;  Thaller  and  Lyon-Caen  in  com- 
mercial and  maritime  law;  Renault,  Lapradelle, 
PiLLET,  and  Piedelievre  in  international  public  law; 
Weiss  in  international  private  law;  Fournier  and 
Lefebvre  in  legal  history;  Gede  and  Faure  in  Econom- 
ics; not  to  mention  the  names  of  Girard,  Capitant, 
CuQ,  Gar^on,  Planiol,  LePoittevin,  Tissier,  and  others, 
whose  subjects  fall  more  distinctly  in  the  field  of  private 
law. 

Closely  connected  with  the  University  of  Paris  is  the 
ancient  College  de  France,  founded  in  1530,  which  now 
maintains  forty-five  chairs,  among  the  occupants  of 
which  may  be  mentioned  Paul  Leroy-Beaulieu  in 
economics  and  Flach  in  comparative  legal  history. 

The  library  facilities  for  the  study  of  political  science, 
public  law,  and  economics  in  Paris  are  unsurpassed.  The 
Hbrary  of  the  Faculty  of  Law  contains  80,000  volumes, 
and  352  seats  are  provided  in  the  reading  room  for 
students.  The  College  de  France  has  a  library  of  10,000 
volumes  reserved  for  the  use  of  professors,  besides  eleven 
special  libraries.  There  are  also  many  special  but  ex- 
tensive collections  in  the  city  of  Paris  which  are  available 
to  students.    Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  library 


POLITICAL   SCIENCE  297 

of  the  Court  of  Cassation,  containing  40,000  volumes; 
of  the  Court  of  Appeal,  13,000  volumes;  of  the  Council 
of  State,  36,000  volumes;  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
250,000  volumes;  of  the  Municipal  Council  in  the  Hotel 
de  Ville,  30,000  volumes;  of  the  Court  of  Accounts,  25,000 
volumes;  of  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  80,000 
volumes,  besides  the  libraries  of  the  other  ministries;  of 
the  Ofhce  of  Foreign  Legislation  and  International  Law, 
60,000  volumes;  the  historical  library  of  the  City  of 
Paris,  400,000  volumes;  of  the  office  of  Legislative  and 
Parliamentary  Labor,  400,000  documents  and  reports; 
the  library  of  the  Bar  at  the  Palais  de  Justice,  65,000 
volumes;  the  library  of  the  Society  of  Comparative 
Legislation,  18,500  volumes,  7,500  brochures,  and  2,000 
periodicals;  of  the  Colonial  School,  15,000  volumes;  and 
various  others.  Finally  there  is  the  National  Library 
containing  3,000,000  volumes  and  110,000  manuscripts. 

Other  Universities.  While  Paris,  by  reason  of  its 
larger  faculties,  its  greater  variety  of  courses  and  its 
more  extensive  library  facilities,  is  the  chief  center  in 
France  for  the  study  of  political  science,  public  law  and 
economics,  nevertheless  the  opportunities  and  facilities 
offered  by  some  of  the  provincial  universities  are  im- 
portant and  valuable. 

Among  the  provincial  universities,  that  of  Lyon  is  the 
largest.  The  Law  Faculty  embraces  about  20  professors 
and  instructors;  among  the  most  distinguished  names 
being  those  of  Garraud  in  criminal  law,  Paul  Pic  in 
international  law  and  industrial  legislation,  and  Appleton 
in  administrative  law.  A  large  number  of  courses  in 
public  law,  legal  history,  political  economy,  industrial 
legislation,  and  public  finance  are  offered,  and  the  enroll- 
ment of  students  exceeds  in  numbers  that  of  any  other 
French  university  outside  of  Paris.     The  university  has 


298  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

a  collection  of  300,000  volumes,  of  which  140,000  are  in 
the  law  library.  It  also  has  132,000  theses  and  bro- 
chures, and  receives  1,300  periodicals. 

A  smaller  French  university  which  enjoys  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  center  for  the  study  of  political  science  is  that 
of  Dijon.  It  has  a  law  faculty  of  about  20  professors 
and  agreges,  among  the  best  known  of  whom,  perhaps, 
are  Desserteaux,  Delpech,  Deslandres,  and  Gaude- 
MET.  It  is  one  of  the  favorite  universities  outside  Paris 
for  foreign  students,  and  it  maintains  a  summer  school 
which  is  attended  by  many  students  from  abroad. 

The  University  of  Grenoble,  charmingly  situated  in  the 
Alps  region,  conducts,  like  Dijon,  a  summer  school  and 
makes  a  special  appeal  to  foreign  students.  During  the 
year  191 2-13  over  1,500  students  from  foreign  countries 
were  registered  in  this  university.  The  Law  Faculty, 
composed  of  16  professors  and  other  members,  is  one  of 
the  ablest  of  the  provincial  universities,  among  its  most 
distinguished  professors  being  Michoud  in  administra- 
tive law,  Beudant  in  constitutional  law,  Caillemer  in 
legal  history,  and  Basdevant  in  international  law.  All 
have  made  notable  contributions  to  the  literature  of  their 
respective  subjects  and  rank  among  the  leading  French 
scholars  in  their  fields.  The  Law  Faculty  offers  a  great 
variety  of  courses,  and  the  University  possesses  a  large 
and  well-equipped  library. 

The  University  of  Lille  also  has  a  special  strength  in 
political  science.  The  literary  activity  of  its  Faculty 
has  been  notable;  and  it  numbers  such  well  known 
scholars  as  Vallas,  Jacquey,  Guernier,  Levy-Ull- 
MANN,  Demogue,  Schatz,  and  Morel. 

A  smaller  and  less  well-known  university,  but  possess- 
ing an  able  law  faculty,  is  that  of  Montpellier  in  Southern 
France.  Among  its  leading  scholars  are  Bremond  in  ad- 
ministrative   law,    Charmont    in    philosophy    of    law. 


JEAN    LOUIS   RENAULT    (1843-) 


POLITICAL   SCIENCE 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE  299 

Laborde  in  criminal  law,  Dubois  in  constitutional  law, 
Valery  in  international  private  law,  and  Moye  in  inter- 
national public  law.  It  offers  courses  in  the  usual  sub- 
jects taught  in  French  law  faculties. 

The  University  of  Nancy,  likewise  one  of  the  smaller 
institutions,  possesses  an  able  law  faculty  of  17  profes- 
sors and  agreges,  including  such  well-known  scholars  as 
Geny  in  civil  law,  Michon  in  legal  history,  Rolland  in 
administrative  law,  Gavet  in  public  law,  and  Simonet 
in  constitutional  law.  The  University  has  a  library  of 
nearly  200,000  volumes;  and  the  city  library  contains 
about  145,000  volumes,  including  the  publications  of 
over  400  learned  societies  and  263  reviews  and  peri- 
odicals. 

One  of  the  oldest  and  best  known  provincial  universi- 
ties is  that  of  Poitiers,  which  has  an  able  law  faculty  and 
a  library  of  100,000  volumes  and  180,000  theses  and 
brochures.  The  University  of  Rennes,  situated  in  the 
picturesque  country  of  Brittany,  maintains  a  summer 
school  and,  like  Dijon  and  Grenoble,  makes  a  special 
appeal  to  foreign  students.  It  has  a  law  faculty  of 
about  20  members,  several  of  whom  enjoy  distinguished 
reputations.  The  university  library  contains  150,000 
volumes  and  over  67,000  brochures.  It  is  unique  in 
possessing  a  collection  of  the  British  and  Foreign  state 
papers  of  560  volumes. 

The  Universities  of  Bordeaux  and  of  Toulouse,  to 
mention  only  two  others,  have  strong  law  faculties,  and 
offer  excellent  facilities  for  the  study  of  political  science 
and  public  law.  Among  the  professors  of  Bordeaux,  the 
best  known  to  American  scholars  is  Leon  Duguit,  the 
most  eminent  of  the  living  French  authorities  in  the 
fields  of  constitutional  law  and  political  science.  At 
Toulouse,  perhaps  the  best  known  to  us  are  Rouard 
DE  Card,  in  international  private  law,  Merignhac,  in 


300  POLITICAL   SCIENCE 

international  public  law,  Hauriou,  in  administrative  law, 
Thomas  and  Declareuil,  in  legal  history,  and  Cezar- 
Bru,  in  economic  legislation. 

Non-university  Instruction. .  Aside  from  the  Univer- 
sities, there  are  in  France  a  number  of  private  institutions 
which  make  a  specialty  of  instruction  in  the  political  and 
economic  sciences.  The  more  important  of  these  are  of 
course  in  Paris,  and  include  the  Ecole  Libre  des  Sciences 
Politiques;  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  Sociales;  the 
College  Libre  des  Sciences  Politiques;  and  the  Ecole  de 
Legislation  professionelle.  The  University  of  Lyon  also 
maintains  an  Institut  des  Sciences  Economiques  et 
Politiques;  there  are  also  Instituts  Coloniaux  at  Bordeaux 
and  Nancy  for  training  young  men  for  the  colonial 
service.  Finally,  there  is  an  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes 
Commerciales  at  Paris  and  Institutes  for  the  study  of 
commerce  at  Paris,  Grenoble,  and  Nancy. 

Of  the  above  mentioned  schools  the  best  known  is  the 
ficole  Libre  des  Sciences  Politiques  at  Paris.  It  was 
founded  by  the  late  fimile  Boutmy,  who  was  its  first 
Director.  It  is  now  in  its  forty-fifth  year,  and  is  under 
the  direction  of  M.  Eichthal  of  the  Institute.  It  offers  a 
great  variety  of  courses  in  the  administrative  sciences, 
public  finance,  political  and  social  economy,  international, 
public  and  private  law  and  diplomacy,  and  diplomatic 
history.  Students  and  auditors  are  admitted  to  the 
lectures  without  examination,  and  there  is  no  age  require- 
ment for  attendance.  The  course  normally  runs  through 
three  years,  and  a  diploma  is  granted  upon  the  comple- 
tion of  the  course.  The  corps  of  instruction  is  composed 
of  a  large  number  of  distinguished  scholars  of  Paris, 
including  many  of  the  professors  of  the  University  of 
Paris,  members  of  the  Council  of  State,  members  of 
Parliament,  government  officials,  etc.     The  school  issues 


POLITICAL   SCIENCE  301 

a  valuable  bi-monthly  publication,  the  "Revue  des 
Sciences  Politiques,"  which  contains  articles  mainly  by 
members  of  the  faculty.  It  possesses  a  library  of 
about  25,000  volumes  and  receives  some  160  French  and 
foreign  reviews  and  periodicals.  The  school  is  very  popu- 
lar and  is  attended  by  a  large  number  of  students,  in- 
cluding Americans  and  other  foreigners  preparing  for 
the  diplomatic  service. 


Psychology 


Psychology* 

There  is  a  French  Psychology  as  there  is  an  English 
and  a  German  Psychology.  It  does  not  have  the  distinct- 
ly introspective  nor  the  experimental-psycho-physical 
character  that  are  predominant  features  of  the  English 
and  the  German  psychology.  Positivism  gave  rise  to 
Taine  (i 828-1 893),  whose  struggle  against  the  spiritual- 
istic interpretation  of  psychologic  phenomena  prepared 
the  way  in  France  for  our  present-day  ideas  regarding 
the  relation  of  genius  to  insanity  and  of  double  person- 
ality and  allied  phenomena  to  the  hysterical  constitution. 
Investigation  of  these  relations  was  greatly  advanced 
by  the  work  of  Charcot  (18 2 5-1 895),  in  his  clinic  for 
nervous  and  mental  diseases  at  the  Salpetriere  (1880), 
which  stimulated  the  scientific  imagination  of  French 
students  of  psychology,  and  so  opened  the  way  for  a 
series  of  brilliant  researches,  within  recent  years,  into  the 
nature  of  certain  abnormal  mental  phenomena.  These 
studies  appear  to  be  of  fundamental  importance.  Under 
controlled  conditions  they  penetrate  beyond  the  data  of 
introspection,  and  they  have  already  developed  our 
concept  of  the  Unconscious  as  a  residuum  of  experiences, 
intelligent  in  the  sense  of  being  adaptable,  and  hence 
as  supplying  the  motives  of  behavior,  whether  normal 
or  abnormal. 

The  French  psychologists,  too,  have  developed  the 
social  aspects  of  their  science.  The  disciples  of  Comte 
had  been  busy  at  finding  the  place  of  social  science  in  a 

^[Drafting  Committee:  J.  R.  Angell,  University  of  Chicago; 
R.  H.  Gault,  Northwestern  University. —  Ed.] 

305 


3o6  PSYCHOLOGY 

hierarchy  of  sciences.  Those  of  spencer  had  been 
occupied  with  tracing  supposed  analogies  between  biol- 
ogical organisms  and  society,  which  was  assumed  to  be 
an  organism  also.  Gabriel  Tarde  (1843-1904),  however, 
who  was  professor  of  Modern  Philosophy  at  the  College 
de  France  from  1900  until  his  death,  was  the  genius  who 
directed  the  current  of  thought  away  from  these  purely 
academic  ways,  and  drew  attention  to  the  analysis  and 
description  of  the  nature  and  combinations  of  certain 
distinct  social  phenomena.  First  were  his  studies  of 
imitation  as  a  social  fact,  which  appeared  in  the  "Revue 
philosophique"  between  1882  and  1884,  and  eventually 
were  brought  together  in  a  volume,  "Les  Lois  de  I'imita- 
tion,"  in  1890;  this  work  went  into  its  second  edition  in 
1895.  It  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  psychology, 
for  it  opened  the  eyes  of  students  to  the  possibility  of 
successful  application  of  psychological  method  to  the 
study  of  the  behavior  of  groups.  "La  Philosophie 
penale"  appeared  in  1891;  and  later,  among  the  products 
of  Tarde's  work  in  the  College  de  France,  came  his 
"Etudes  penales  et  sociales"  and  "Psychologic  6cono- 
mique." 

In  the  field  of  general  psychology,  French  investigators 
stand  out  less  prominently,  but  here  also  progress  has 
been  made,  and  the  work  of  Th.  Ribot  (1839-1903)  is  a 
distinguished  record.  He  became  professor  of  Experi- 
mental Psychology  in  the  College  de  France  in  1885. 
In  1888  he  set  forth  a  "motor  theory"  of  attention,  which 
was  later  more  fully  developed  by  the  American  James 
Mark  Baldwin  in  "Mental  Development  in  the  Child 
and  the  Race:  Methods  and  Processes,"  (1906),  and  by 
Ribot  himself  in  "La  Psychologic  des  Sentiments," 
(1897),  in  which  the  author  transformed  the  feelings 
into  phenomena  of  the  central  nervous  system  accom- 
panying   bodily    processes.     Among    other    works    by 


ALFRED  BINET  (1857-1911) 


PSYCHOLOGY 


PSYCHOLOGY  307 

Ribot  which  have  set  the  course  for  present  day  investi- 
gations in  France  are  the  following:  "L'Heredite  psycho- 
logique"  (1882);  "Les  Maladies  de  la  volonte"  (1883;  14th 
ed.,  1899);  "  Les  Maladies  de  la  personnalite"  (1885;  8th 
ed.,  1899);  "La  Psychologie  de  I'attention"  (1889). 

France  is  the  source  of  a  movement  which,  in  American 
departments  of  Psychology,  is  occupying  more  attention 
than  any  other  single  object:  the  invention  and  applica- 
tion of  psychological  tests.  Alfred  Binet  (1857-1911), 
in  collaboration  with  Thomas  Simon  (1873-),  originated 
the  Binet  Tests.  Binet  estabhshed  the  first  psycho- 
logical laboratory  in  France  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1889,  and 
in  1895  he  began  the  publication  of  ''L'Annee  psycho- 
logique,"  in  which  his  most  important  works  appear. 

Taking  the  Psychological  Review  Indices  for  191 3  and 
1914,  about  one-sixth  of  all  the  world's  titles  on  Abnormal 
Psychology  are  in  the  French  language  by  French  authors. 
This  will  suggest  the  activity  of  contemporary  work  in 
psychology  in  France. 

Instruction.  Paris.  All  of  the  sixteen  universities  in 
France  offer  inducements  to  graduate  students  in  psych- 
ology. 

Naturally  the  University  of  Paris  presents  the  widest 
range  of  opportunities,  both  directly  through  the  uni- 
versity itself  and  indirectly  through  numerous  auxiliary 
institutions  in  the  neighborhood.  Among  these,  one  must 
mention  first  of  all,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  student 
of  psychology,  the  College  de  France.  Indeed  one  would 
hardly  go  to  Paris  for  research  in  psychology  without 
taking  advantage  of  this  institution  of  learning. 

At  the  University  of  Paris  are  Delbos  (Philosophy  and 
Psychology),  Georges  Dumas  (Experimental  Psychology), 
Laignel-Lavastine  (whose  studies  of  Aphasia  and  of 
Dementia   in    syphilitic    cases    are    well    known),    and 


3o8  PSYCHOLOGY 

Revault  d'Allones  (whose  name  is  known  to  students 
of  general  Psychology  for  his  work  on  "Attention"  and 
"Les  troubles  de  I'intelligence").  At  the  clinic  for  mental 
diseases  at  the  Salpetriere  are  J.  Voism,  J.  Seglas,  whose 
investigations  relate  chiefly  to  Hallucinations,  and 
P.  Cbl\slin. 

At  the  College  de  France  is  Pierre  Janet  (Experimental 
Psychology),  a  giant  among  scientists,  who  of  contem- 
porary French  psychologists  is  by  far  the  best  known  to 
American  students.  He  first  demonstrated  subconscious 
perception  of  sensory  stimulations  applied  to  anaesthetic 
tactile  and  visual  areas;  and,  more  fully  than  any  other 
investigator,  he  has  analyzed  the  various  forms  of  amnesia. 
In  his  "L'Automatisme  psychologique "  (1889)  and 
various  recent  publications  in  the  "Journal  de  Psych- 
ologie  normale  et  pathologique "  and  other  periodicals, 
he  has,  on  experimental  grounds,  developed  the  theory 
of  hysteria  in  its  numerous  manifestations,  such  as 
double  personality,  automatic  writing,  phobias,  etc.,  as 
phenomena  of  dissociated  processes  independent  of  per- 
sonal consciousness.  These  processes  he  conceives  as 
expressions  of  residua  of  early  experiences;  systematized 
or  organized  residua  which  do  not  directly  affect  con- 
sciousness, but  which  are,  nevertheless,  intelligent,  in 
the  sense  that,  in  the  conditions  of  experiment,  they  lead 
to  suitable  adaptations  of  behavior.  It  is  thus  that  the 
scientific  imagination  of  Janet  and  his  collaborators 
carries  us  into  an  experimental  psychology  that  reaches 
back  of  the  data  of  the  introspection  of  normal  conscious- 
ness. 

At  the  Sorbonne,  also,  are  laboratories  of  Physiological 
Psychology,  Philippe,  Director;  of  Physiology  of  Sensa- 
tion, Ch.  Henry,  Director;  Experimental  Psychology, 
at  the  Asylum  of  Villejuif,  Edouard  Toulouse,  Director; 
of  Pathological  Psychology,  Marie,  Director.    There  is 


PSYCHOLOGY 


PSYCHOLOGY  309 

also  the  Laboratory  of  Anthropology  under  the  direction 
of  Manoxjvrier  and  Papillault. 

The  institutions  for  research  in  the  city  of  Paris  offer 
almost  unlimited  opportunity  to  the  student  who  is 
interested  in  physiological  psychology  and  mental  path- 
ology. Moreover,  the  French  universities,  almost  with- 
out exception,  and  especially  the  University  of  Paris 
and  the  College  de  France,  are  rich  in  opportunities  for 
the  student  whose  interest  is  in  the  social  aspects  of 
Psychology,  particularly  in  as  far  as  this  subject  leads 
into  the  study  of  Ethnography,  Anthropology,  and 
Antiquities.  Almost  every  university  has  its  museum  or 
society  devoted  to  one  or  all  of  these  subjects. 

Other  Universities.  While  the  great  contributions  to 
Psychology  by  French  scholars  have  been  made  in  the 
fields  mentioned  above,  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  in 
other  regions  they  are  inactive.  Noteworthy  work  has 
recently  been  done  by  R.  Bourdon  at  Rennes,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  perception  of  movements.  Studies  of  atten- 
tion have  been  made  in  the  laboratory  at  Montpellier 
in  which  the  subjects  were  young  children,  and  in  the 
same  university  Foucault  has  lately  contributed  to 
certain  aspects  of  the  psychology  of  learning. 

On  the  whole  it  can  be  said  that,  in  the  provincial 
universities  outside  of  Paris,  where  the  great  hospitals 
are  lacking,  the  problems  recently  under  investigation 
are  those  of  the  older  laboratory  type  which,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  questions  of  abnormal  and  social  psy- 
chology, may  be  termed  psycho-physical. 


Religion 


Religion 


The  chief  contribution  of  France  to  the  modern  study 
of  religion  is  in  the  field  of  the  history  of  religions,  where 
Paris  alone  now  offers  an  organized  body  of  instruc- 
tion and  where  the  work  of  French  scholars  has  always 
been  preeminent.  For  example,  the  scientific  study  of 
the  Avesta  was  first  seriously  attempted  by  Eugene 
BuRNOUF  (1801-1852),  who  laid  the  foundations  of 
our  present  knowledge  of  Zoroastrianism  ("Zendavesta," 
Paris,  1829-1843;  "Commentaire  sur  le  Yagna,"  Paris, 
1833),  following  up  the  explorations  of  that  forerunner 
of  modern  scholarship,  Anquetil  Duperron.  Burnoue 
also  did  pioneering  work  of  the  first  importance  in  the 
study  of  Indian  Buddhism  ("Introduction  a  Thistoire 
du  Buddhisme  Indien,"  Paris,  1844;  "Lotus  de  la  bonne 
loi,"  Paris,  1852),  and  developed  the  study  of  Hin- 
duism  ("Bhagavata  Purana,"   vols.    1-3,  Paris,   1840- 

1849). 

The  succession  has  been  notably  carried  on  by  Abel 
Bergaigne,  (1838-1888),  whose  revolutionary  study  of 
the  Veda  destroyed  completely  the  earlier  view  of  the 
extreme  simplicity  and  antiquity  of  both  literature  and 
religion  ("La  religion  vedique  d'apres  les  hymnes  du 
Rig-Veda,"  3  vols.,  Paris,  1878-1883);  and  by  James 
Darmesteter,  with  his  studies  and  translation  of  the 
Avesta.  The  entire  field  of  Indian  religion  has  been  cov- 
ered by  the  erudition  of  Auguste  Barth  ("Quarante  ans 
dTndianisme,"  4  vols.,  Paris,  1914). 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  G.  B.  Foster,  University  of  Chicago; 
N.  B.  Nash,  Episcopal  Tiieological  School,  Cambridge. —  Ed.] 

313 


314  RELIGION 

As  with  all  other  branches  of  Egyptology,  the  study  of 
Eg}^tian  religion  owes  much  to  the  great  name  of  Gaston 
Maspero  (1846-19 1 6),  whose  scattered  essays  have  been 
collected  under  the  title:  "fitudes  de  mythologie  et 
d'archeologie  egyptiennes"  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1893-),  and 
constitute  the  most  important  single  contribution  to 
the  subject. 

Of  far  different  character  from  all  these  scholars,  but 
of  very  great  significance  for  the  study  of  religion,  is  the 
genius  of  Ernest  Renan  (1823-1892).  His  "Histoire 
du  peuple  d'lsrael"  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1887-1894),  and 
his  far  more  important  "Histoire  des  origines  du  Chris t- 
ianisme"  (7  vols.,  Paris,  1863-188 2),  represent,  as  does  the 
work  of  no  other  man,  the  reaction  of  the  modern  Occi- 
dental mind  upon  its  inherited  religion,  and  their  contem- 
porary significance  may  have  somewhat  overshadowed 
their  undeniably  great  historical  value.  The  "Vie  de 
Jesus"  (1863;  subsequently  printed  as  vol.  i  of  the  "His- 
toire  des  origines"),  though  marred,  from  the  standpoint 
of  present-day  taste,  by  excessive  sentimentality,  and 
from  that  of  contemporary  scholarship  by  excessive  reliance 
on  the  Fourth  Gospel,  remains  a  classic. 

The  study  of  religion  acquired  academic  standing  in 
France  in  1880,  when  Albert  Reville  (1826-1906) 
was  appointed  to  the  new  chair  of  the  history  of  rehgions 
at  the  College  de  France.  This  recognition,  together 
with  the  foundation  in  the  same  year  of  the  "Revue  de 
I'histoire  des  religions,"  still  the  chief  periodical  in  its 
field  and  one  of  the  very  best  in  any  field,  gave  great 
stimulus  to  the  historical  study  of  reHgion.  Reville  him- 
self contributed  much  to  this  study  ("Histoire  des  reli- 
gions," 3  vols.,  Paris,  1883-1886;  Hibbert  Lectures,  1884;' 
"  Prolegomenes  de  I'histoire  des  religions,"  Paris,  1880, 
4th  ed.,  1886;  tr.  London,  1884;  "Jesus  de  Nazareth," 
2  vols.,  Paris,  1897). 


RELIGION  315 

The  instruction  offered  by  a  single  chair  at  the  College 
de  France  was  amplified  in  1886  by  the  foundation  of  the 
Section  des  Sciences  Religieuses  at  the  Ecole  Pratique  des 
Hautes  Etudes.  Here  has  been  built  up  undeniably  the 
leading  school  in  the  world  for  the  historical  study  of  reli- 
gion. 

But  before  recounting  the  opportunity  for  study  there, 
mention  must  be  made  of  the  work  of  £mile  Durkheim, 
professor  of  the  science  of  education  and  sociology, 
Faculty  of  Letters,  University  of  Paris.  He  is  the 
leader  of  the  so-called  "sociological  school,"  the  most 
notable  recent  development  in  the  study  of  primitive 
religions.  In  reaction  from  the  excessive  reliance  upon 
the  more  or  less  hypothetical  psychology  of  primitive 
man  which  marked  previous  study,  Durkheim  and  his 
followers  emphasize  the  influence  of  social  environment, 
and  find  in  totemism  the  primitive  form  of  religion 
{Durkheim,  "Les  formes  elementaires  de  la  vie  reli- 
gieuse,"  Paris,  191 2,  tr.  New  York,  191 5).  Hubert  and 
Mauss,  "Melanges  d'histoire  des  religions,"  Paris,  1909,  is 
a  collection  of  studies  reprinted  from  "L'Annee  sociologi- 
que"  (Paris,  1896-),  which  represents  this  school  both 
through  its  exhaustive  review  of  current  literature  and 
through  important  articles  by  Durkheim  and  others.  Out- 
side the  "sociological  school,"  excellent  work  has  also  been 
done  by  French  scholars  in  the  field  of  "primitive"  reli- 
gions. 

Instruction  at  Paris.  (I)  Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes 
£,tudes:  Section  des  Sciences  Religieuses.  The  work  done 
here  is  admirably  illustrated  by  the  seventeen  essays 
pubHshed  under  the  title  of  "fitudes  de  critique  et 
d'histoire"  by  the  Section  des  Sciences  ReHgieuses  in 
1896.  The  subjects  of  these  essays  range  from  Mela- 
nesian  taboo  to  the  Christology  of  Paul  of  Samosata. 


3i6  RELIGION 

At  the  present  time  twenty  directors  of  studies  give 
instruction  in  sixteen  departments,  of  each  of  which  but 
brief  mention  can  be  made.  The  department,  director 
or  directors,  courses  in  1914-1915,  and  important  pub- 
lications are  given  in  order. 

Rehgions  of  uncivihzed  peoples.  Marcel  Mauss. 

Primitive  religions  of  Europe,  Henri  Hubert:  Irish 
mythology;  The  sculptured  monuments  of  the  religion 
of  the  Gauls.  (Mauss  and  Hubert,  both  vigorous  ad- 
herents of  the  sociological  school,  have  collaborated  in 
other  publications  beside  the  one  already  mentioned; 
see  "Essai  sur  la  nature  et  la  fonction  du  sacrifice," 
"L'Annee  sociologique,"  vol.  II,  1899,  pp.  29-138). 

Religions  of  pre-Columbian  America,  Georges  Ray- 
naud: Civil  and  religious  history  of  pre-Columbian 
Central  America,  Hieratic  writings  and  hieroglyphics 
of  the  same. 

Religions  of  the  Far  East,  Marcel  Granet:  Feasts  of 
ancient  China  ("Revue  de  I'histoire  des  religions," 
LXIX,  1914,  No.  2,  "Programme  d'etudes  sur  I'ancienne 
religion  chinoise.") 

Religions  of  India, — (i)  Sylvain  Levi  ("La  science  des 
religions  et  les  religions  d'lnde,"  Paris,  1892;  Asanga: 
Mahayana-sutralamkara,  "Expose  de  la  doctrine  du 
grand  vehicule  selon  le  systeme  Yogacara,"  2  vols., 
Paris,  1907-1911).  (2)  Alfred  Foucher:  The  Chan- 
dogya-Upanishad,  Buddhist  texts. 

Assyro-Babylonian  religion,  Charles  Fossey:  Some 
Babylonian  and  BibHcal  myths  ("La  magie  assyrienne," 
Paris,  1902;  "Manuel  d'assyriologie,"  vol.  I,  Paris,  1904). 

Religions  of  Egypt,  fimile  Amelineau:  Ancient  texts 
relative  to  the  religion  and  morals  of  Egypt,  Book  of  the 
Dead,  ch.  CXLVI  ("Essai  sur  revolution  historique  et 
philosophique  des  idees  morales  dans  I'figypte  ancienne," 
Paris,    1895;    "  Prolegomenes    a   I'etude    de   la   religion 


ERNEST  RENAN  (1823-1892) 


RELIGION  317 

egyptienne,"  vol.  I,  Paris,  1908,  vol.  II  in  press;  Ame- 
lineau  has  also  made  notable  contributions  to  the  study 
of  Christianity  in  Egypt:  see  ''Essai  sur  le  gnosticisme 
egyptien,"  Paris,  1887;  "Litterature  chretienne  de 
I'Egypte  grecque  et  copte.") 

Religions  of  Greece  and  Rome, — (i)  Jules  Toutain, 
secretary  of  the  Section;  Cults  of  the  mountains  and 
high  places  in  Greece;  Religion  and  cults  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Egypt  during  the  Roman  period  ("Les  cultes 
paiens  dans  I'empire  romain,"  vols.  I-II,  Paris,  1907- 
191 1 ;  in  "fitudes  de  mythologie  et  d'histoire  des  religions 
antiques,"  Paris,  1909,  Toutain  appears  as  a  lively 
critic  of  the  sociological  school  in  their  devotion  to  to- 
temism).     (2)  A.  Berthelot. 

Religions  of  Israel  and  the  western  Semites,  Maurice 
Vernes,  president  of  the  section,  and  professor  in  the 
College  Libre  des  sciences  sociales:  Ancient  organization 
of  the  clergy  and  cultus  in  Israel;  Ecclesiastes  ("L'his- 
toire  des  religions,  son  esprit,  sa  methode  .  .  ." 
Paris,  1887;  "Histoire  sociale  des  religions,"  vol.  I, 
Paris,  191 1). 

Talmudic  and  Rabbinic  Judaism,  Israel  Levi:  Rabbinic 
commentaries  on  the  Psalms;  The  religious  poems  of 
JudaHalevi  (See  "Revue  des  etudes  juives,"  Paris,  1880-, 
passim;  Levi  has  been  its  editor  since  its  beginning). 

Islam  and  religions  of  Arabia,  Clement  Huart:  The 
commentary  of  Tabari  on  ch.  IV  of  the  Koran;  Persian 
mysticism  according  to  the  Mesnevi  of  Jelal-ed-Din 
Rumi  ("Le  livre  de  la  creation  et  de  I'histoire,"  text 
and  translation,  5  vols.,  Paris,  1899-1916;  "Histoire 
des  Arabes,"  2  vols.,  Paris,  1912-1913). 

Byzantine  Christianity,  Gabriel  Millet:  Byzantine 
archaeology  and  religious  history  (Millet  has  edited  a 
description  of  "La  collection  chretienne  et  byzantine  des 
Hautes  fitudes,"  Paris,  1903). 


3i8  RELIGION 

Christian  literature  and  church  history, — (i)  Eugene 
de  Faye:  Moral  and  reUgious  ideas  and  doctrines  in  the 
3rd  century  A.D.;  Apocryphal  acts  of  Thomas  and 
others  ("Clement  d'Alexandrie,"  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1906; 
"fitudes  sur  les  origines  des  eglises  de  I'age  apostolique," 
Paris,  1909).  (2)  Paul  Monceaux:  Documents  con- 
cerning the  soldier-martyrs  of  the  end  of  the  3rd  century; 
Christian  epigraphy  of  southern  Gaul  ("Histoire  lit- 
teraire  de  I'Afrique  chretienne,"  4  vols.,  Paris,  1901-1912). 

History  of  doctrines  and  dogmas, —  (i)  Frangois 
Picavet:  The  persistence  of  mediaeval  philosophic  and 
theological  doctrines  in  the  philosophers  and  theologians 
of  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries;  The  doctrines  and  dog- 
mas of  Christianity  in  the  councils  of  the  first  six  cen- 
turies ("Esquisse  d'une  histoire  generale  et  comparee 
des  philosophes  medievales,"  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1907; 
"Essais  sur  I'histoire  generale  et  comparee  des  theologies 
et  philosophies  medievales,"  Paris,  1913).     (2)  Alphan- 

DERY. 

History  of  Canon  Law,  R.  Genestal:  Letters  of  Ivo 
of  Chartres;  Relations  and  conflicts  between  the  eccles- 
tical  and  the  secular  jurisdiction  ("Revue  de  I'histoire 
des  religions,"  LXIX,  1914,  No.  i,  "L'enseignement 
du  droit  canonique"). 

History  of  the  Catholic  Church  since  the  council  of 
Trent,  L.  Lacroix:  History  of  the  Civil  Constitution  of 
the  Clergy. 

Thus,  in  the  Section  Religieuse  of  the  ficole  des 
Hautes  Etudes  alone  there  is  such  an  opportunity  for  the 
study  of  religions  as  can  be  found  in  no  other  city.  But 
this  splendid  faculty  is  supplemented  by  several  other 
institutions  in  Paris. 

(II)  Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes:  Section  des 
Sciences  Historiques  et  Philologiques.  Egyptian  antiqui- 
ties and   philology,  Alexandre   Moret    ("Du   caractere 


RELIGION  319 

religieux  de  la  royaute  pharaonique,"  Paris,  1902;  "Le 
rituel  du  culte  divin  journalier  en  Egypte,"  Paris,  1902). 
Ancient  history  of  the  Orient,  Isidore  Levy,  History  of 
Israel.  Semitic  languages,  Mayer  Lambert,  the  Book 
of  Isaiah  ("  Commentaire  sur  le  Sefer  yesira  ou  livre  de  la 
creation,"  Paris,  1891).  Byzantine  and  modern  Greek, 
Jean  Psichari:  St.  Mark's  gospel. 

(III).  University  of  Paris,  Faculty  of  Letters.  Antonin 
Debidour,  professor  of  Christianity  in  Modern  Times: 
Religious  history  of  Europe  since  1878  ("Histoire  des 
rapports  de  I'eglise  et  de  I'etat  en  France  de  1789  a  1870," 
Paris,  1898;  "L'eglise  catholique  et  I'etat  sous  la  troisieme 
republique,"  2  vols.,  Paris,  1 906-1 909).  History  of 
Christianity  in  Antiquity  and  the  Middle  Ages,  Charles 
GuiGNEBERT,  charge  de  cours:  Christian  life  in  the  4th 
century;  Problems  in  the  Apostolic  Age  ("TertuHien," 
Paris,  1902;  "Manuel  d'histoire  ancienne  du  Christian- 
isme:  les  origines,"  Paris,  1906;  "Le  probleme  de 
Jesus,"  Paris,  1914).  History  of  the  religion  of  the 
Hebrews,  Adolphe  Lods,  charge  de  cours:  The  begin- 
nings of  Hebrew  literature;  The  prophets  of  Israel  and 
their  times  ("Le  livre  d'Henoch,  fragments  grecs  .  .," 
Paris,  1892;  "La  croyance  a  la  vie  future  et  le  culte  des 
morts  dans  I'antiquite  Israelite,"  Paris,  1906).  History 
of  Christian  ideas  and  Literature  of  the  i6th-i9th 
Centuries,  Louis  Rebelliau,  charge  de  cours:  Jansenism 
in  France  ("Bossuet,  historien  du  protestantisme," 
Paris,  1892;  "Bossuet,"  in  "Les  grands  ecrivains 
frangais,"  Paris,  1900). 

(IV).  College  de  France.  Paul  Foucart,  professor  of 
Greek  epigraphy  and  antiquities,  ("Des  associations 
religieuses  chez  les  grecs,"  Paris,  1873;  three  books  on  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  Paris,  1895,  1900,  1914).  Alfred 
LoiSY,  professor  of  the  history  of  religions:  The  epistle 
to  the  Galatians,  The  history  of  sacrifice;  the  Abbe  Loisy 


320  RELIGION 

won  fame  by  his  reply  to  Harnack's  "Das  Wesen  des 
Christentums "  ("L'evangile  et  I'eglise,"  3d  ed.,  Paris, 
1904);  equally  important  are  his  study  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel  ("Le  quatrieme  evangile,"  Paris,  1903)  and  his 
two  volumes  on  the  Synoptic  gospels  ("Les  evangiles 
synoptiques,"  Paris,  1907-1908);  his  five  essays  pubhshed 
under  the  title,  "A  propos  d'histoire  des  religions" 
(Paris,  191 1),  represent  his  complete  acceptance  of  the 
comparative  method  in  the  study  of  religion. 

Libraries.  Beside  the  many  general  libraries  in  Paris, 
a  few  special  collections  should  be  mentioned:  (i) 
Library  of  the  Societe  de  I'histoire  du  Protestantisme 
frangais,  about  60,000  vols,  and  mss.;  (2)  Library  of  the 
Faculte  Libre  de  Theologie  Protestante,  about  36,000 
vols,  on  all  branches  of  the  study  of  Christianity;  (3) 
Library  of  the  Alliance  Israelite,  about  25,000  vols,  on 
Judaism;  (4)  Library  of  the  ficole  normale  Israelite, 
about  30,000  vols,  on  Jewish  history  and  literature; 
(5)  Library  of  the  ficole  Rabbinique  Centrale,  about 
15,000  vols. 

Unique  and  extremely  useful  to  the  student  is  the 
Musee  Guimet,  with  its  32,000  vols,  and  its  large  col- 
lection of  religious  objects  of  all  kinds,  photographs,  etc., 
dealing  principally  with  the  religions  of  the  Far  East, 
but  including  collections  for  many  other  rehgions. 


Sociology 


Sociology 


The  French  have  made  many  important  contributions 
to  the  development  of  sociology  as  a  science.  The  term 
itself  was  invented  by  Auguste  Comte,  who  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  systematic  sociology.  While  a 
young  man  of  about  twenty,  Comte  became  associated 
with  Saint-Simon,  who  exercised  a  decisive  influence  on 
the  direction  which  his  speculation  in  the  field  of  social 
philosophy  took.  He  was  in  no  sense  a  follower  of 
Saint-Simon;  but  (to  use  his  own  word)  Saint-Simon 
"launched"  him  by  suggesting  the  two  starting-points 
of  what  was  later  developed  into  the  Comtist  system  — 
first,  that  political  phenomena  are  as  capable  of  being 
grouped  under  laws  as  other  phenomena;  and  second, 
that  the  true  destination  of  philosophy  must  be  social, 
and  the  true  object  of  the  thinker  must  be  the  reorgan- 
ization of  the  moral,  religious,  and  political  systems. 
Although  he  later  broke  with  Saint-Simon  on  account  of 
the  latter's  sentimental  schemes  of  social  reconstruction, 
Comte  was  nevertheless  indebted  to  him  for  these  ideas, 
and  others  of  less  importance,  which  he  developed  into 
a  philosophical  structure,  that  has  had  a  profound  in- 
fluence on  all  subsequent  sociological  thinking. 

Prior  to  Comte,  sociological  studies  everywhere  had 
been  largely  fragmentary  and  polemical.  He  undertook 
to  discover  a  principle  of  unity  in  society  that  would 
mean  for  sociology  what  the  law  of  gravitation  meant  for 

^  [Drafting  Committee:  T.  N.  Carver,  Harvard  University; 
F.  S.  Deibler,  Northwestern  University;  F.  H.  Giddings,  Columbia 
University;  E.  A.  Ross,  University  of  Wisconsin. —  Ed.] 

323 


324  SOCIOLOGY 

physics.  He  was  obliged,  however,  to  abandon  his  quest 
for  such  a  principle,  and  was  led  to  emphasize  in  the 
development  of  his  social  philosophy  three  stages, — the 
theological,  the  metaphysical,  and  the  positive,  or  scien- 
tific. These  three  stages  had  been  suggested  both  by 
Turgot  and  Saint-Simon,  but  with  Comte  they  became 
fundamental.  In  reality  Comte  was  a  system-builder, 
and  it  has  been  said  of  him  that  "so  well  did  he  do  his 
task  that  social  philosophy  since  his  day  has  done  little 
more  than  to  fiU  in  his  outline  and  correct  and  supple- 
ment his  methods." 

Following  Comte,  the  contributions  of  French  writers 
to  the  development  of  sociological  thought  were  meager 
until  after  the  war  of  1870.  However,  in  this  interval, 
CouRNOT,  in  his  "Essai  sur  le  fondement  de  nos  connais- 
ances"  and  in  his  second  volume,  "  Enchainement  des 
idees  fondamentales,"  did  undertake  to  build  on  the 
physical  and  biological  sciences  a  new  positive  science 
that  should  treat  of  social  questions.  By  1870,  Herbert 
Spencer  had  shown  the  application  of  the  principle  of 
evolution  to  the  development  of  social  institutions,  and 
had  particularly  emphasized  the  resemblances  between 
social  and  biological  organisms.  Starting  with  this 
concept,  EspiNAS,  in  his  work,  "Les  Societes  animales" 
(Paris,  1877),  endeavored  to  illustrate  and  prove  this 
thesis.  During  the  next  thirty  years,  the  French  scien- 
tists originated  and  developed  some  of  the  most  widely 
accepted  sociological  concepts  and  principles.  The  result 
has  been  that  French  scholarship  has  exercised  a  dominat- 
ing influence  in  stimulating  sociological  investigation  the 
world  over.  Some  American  scholars  have  expressed 
their  gratitude  by  saying  that  they  have  profited  more 
from  the  French  sociologists  than  from  all  others  combined. 

Without  attempting  to  make  an  inclusive  hst,  the 
following  may  be  cited  as  persons  who  have  made  distinct 


EMILE  DURKHEIM  (1858-) 


SOCIOLOGY 


SOCIOLOGY  325 

contributions  to  the  development  of  the  subject.  Among 
those  who  look  upon  classification  as  the  principal  means 
of  understanding  social  structure  and  social  processes, 
appear  the  names  of  Littre,De  RoBERTY,and  La  Combe. 
FouiLLEE  is  representative  of  those  who  hold  to  the 
analogy  between  social  and  biological  organisms.  Closely- 
akin  to  this  group  is  Le  Bon,  who  has  interpreted  society 
in  terms  of  a  quasi-psychological  organism.  Gabriel 
Tarde,  in  his  "Laws  of  Imitation,"  represents  those 
who  have  endeavored  to  explain  social  progress  in  terms 
of  a  single  principle.  The  name  of  Vacher  de  la  Pouge 
would  appear  among  those  who  endeavor  to  explain 
social  progress  through  struggle  and  survival.  Finally, 
the  name  of  Le  Play,  who  founded  the  "Societe  inter- 
nationale  des  etudes  pratiques  d'economie  sociale," 
stands  high  among  those  who  follow  the  inductive  method 
in  studying  social  facts  and  forces. 

In  addition  to  the  above  list,  there  are  those  who  have 
made  distinct  contributions  to  some  specific  field  of 
sociological  research,  or  to  the  method  of  studying  the 
subject.  Quetelet  should  be  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nection for  his  efforts  to  adapt  statistical  methods  to  the 
analysis  and  evaluation  of  social  forces.  Notable  also 
has  been  the  work  of  Letourneau  on  the  evolution  of 
the  family,  of  laws,  of  property,  etc.;  of  Dumont  on  the 
effect  of  depopulation  and  caste  on  the  objective  of 
sociology;  of  Durkheim,  on  primitive  forms  of  religious 
life,  on  suicide,  prohibition  of  incest,  etc.;  of  Hubert 
and  Mauss,  on  sacrifice  and  magic;  of  Bougle,  on  the 
regime  of  castes;  of  Simlvnd  on  the  wages  of  mine  work- 
ers; and  of  many  others. 

Periodicals  and  Societies.  Besides  direct  contribu- 
tions to  the  subject,  as  indicated  above,  the  French  have 
taken  an  active  part  in  founding  journals  and  societies 


326  SOCIOLOGY 

devoted  to  the  advancement  of  sociological  study  and 
research. 

The  most  important  of  the  journals  are:  "La  Reforme 
Sociale,"  founded  by  Le  Play  in  1881;  "La  Science 
Sociale,  suivant  la  methode  de  Le  Play,"  edited  since 
1886  by  Ed.  Demoulins;  "Annales  de  ITnstitut  Inter- 
national de  Sociologie,"  edited  since  1894  under  the 
direction  of  Rene  Worms;  "Revue  Internationale  de 
Sociologie,"  published  since  1896;  "L'Annee  Socio- 
logique,"  edited  since  1899  by  E.  Durkheim. 

Among  the  learned  societies  in  this  field,  there  should 
be  mentioned  the  "Societe  d 'Economic  Sociale,"  "the 
Societe  de  Statistique  de  Paris,"  and  the  "Societe 
d  'ficonomie  Politique ' '  located  at  Paris.  Anthropological 
societies  are  located  at  Paris,  Grenoble,  Lyon,  and 
Montpellier. 

Instruction  in  the  Universities.  The  chief  center  in 
France  for  the  study  of  sociology  is  at  Paris.  In  the 
Law  School  of  the  University  of  Paris,  courses  are  offered 
by  GiDE,  on  comparative  social  economy;  by  Gar^on, 
on  criminal  law  and  comparative  penal  legislation;  by 
Beauregard,  Rist,  Perreau,  and  Trauchy,  on  po- 
litical economy.  Under  the  Faculty  of  Letters,  courses 
are  offered  by  Bougle  on  socialism  and  social  and 
political  economy,  by  Durkheim  on  education  and 
sociology.  In  the  College  of  France,  courses  are  offered 
by  FusTER,  on  the  struggle  against  tuberculosis  and  hous- 
ing reforms,  and  on  social  insurance;  by  Izoulet,  on  social 
philosophy;  by  Le  Chatelier,  on  sociology  of  the 
Mussulmans;  and  by  Renard,  on  the  history  of  labor. 

Outside  of  Paris,  to  mention  some  of  those  who  appear 
in  the  faculty  lists  of  the  various  Colleges  and  Univer- 
sities as  devoting  their  entire  time  to  the  subject  of 
sociology:     at    the    University    of    Bordeaux,    Gaston 


SOCIOLOGY  327 

Richard  offers  courses  in  the  field  of  social  science,  as 
does  also  Gabriel  Melin  at  the  University  of  Nancy. 
Courses  in  the  kindred  subjects  of  political  economy, 
history  of  economic  thought,  criminal  law,  and  industrial 
legislation  are  given  at  the  Universities  of  Aix-Marseille, 
Bordeaux,  Caen,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyon,  Mont- 
pellier,  Nancy,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  and  Toulouse. 


Zoology 


Zoology 


It  is  universally  recognized  that  the  French  have  taken 
a  prominent  part  in  the  development  of  biological  science. 
In  the  nineteenth  century,  Cuvier  laid  the  foundations 
of  comparative  anatomy  and  Claude  Bernard  gave  an 
immense  impetus  to  experimental  physiology,  while 
Lamarck,  Dujardin,  and  Pasteur  were  pioneers  and 
innovators  in  three  of  the  greatest  biological  achievements 
of  the  century.  These  three  outstanding  events  that  so 
profoundly  influenced  the  course  of  biological  thought 
are :  the  announcement  of  the  theory  of  organic  evolution, 
the  discovery  of  protoplasm,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  germ-theory  of  disease  in  connection  with  the  science 
of  bacteriology.  We  may  first  briefly  consider  the  part 
played  by  Frenchmen  in  launching  these  three  great 
movements,  and  then  take  up  matters  that  are  more 
strictly  zoological.  Inasmuch  as  Botany  receives  con- 
sideration in  a  separate  chapter,  that  which  foUows  in 
this  chapter  will  apply  to  Zoology  and  its  various  sub- 
divisions, and,  also,  to  some  of  those  movements  which 
in  their  broad  applications  affect  the  entire  field  of 
biological  science. 

(i)  Organic  Evolution.  The  doctrine  of  organic  evolution 
has  produced  the  greatest  intellectual  ferment  of  the  past 
century.  It  has  entered  into  the  framework  of  all  scien- 
tific thinking,  and  has  been  characterized  as  "one  of  the 

*  [Drafting  Committee:  G.  N.  Calkins,  Columbia  University; 
F.  R.  LiLLiE,  University  of  Chicago;  W.  A.  LocY,  Northwestern 
University. —  Ed.] 

33T- 


332  ,  ZOOLOGY 

greatest  acquisitions  of  human  knowledge."  In  the 
establishment  of  this  generalization  a  French  zoologist, 
Lamarck,  was  the  leader.  Although  the  evolutionary- 
point  of  view  had  been  vaguely  suggested  at  dififerent 
times,  Lamarck  (1744-18 29)  was  the  first  to  announce 
a  comprehensive  theory  of  organic  evolution  that  has 
maintained  to  the  present  time  a  creditable  standing  in 
the  intellectual  world.  His  immediate  predecessors, 
BuFFON,  Goethe,  and  Erasmus  Darwin,  dealt  with  the 
same  great  theme,  but  much  less  rigorously  than  Lamarck, 
whose  theory  was  so  much  more  thoroughly  thought  out 
that  it  completely  superseded  all  earlier  attempts  and 
marks  the  beginning  of  evolutionary  thought  in  its 
modern  sense.  It  was  first  announced  by  Lamarck  in 
1800  and  was  somewhat  elaborated  in  1802,  1803,  and 
1806.  Finally,  it  was  fully  expounded  in  his  "Philosophic 
Zoologique,"  in  1809,  and  that  year  marks  the  first  dis- 
tinct epoch  in  the  rise  of  evolutionary  thought. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  consideration  of 
the  principles  laid  down  by  Lamarck;  but  it  is  a  signifi- 
cant circumstance  that,  a  century  after  being  promul- 
gated, his  principle  of  use-inheritance  should  have  been 
revived,  and,  under  the  title  of  "Neo-Lamarckism," 
should  occupy  such  a  prominent  place  in  the  discussions 
regarding  the  factors  of  organic  evolution  that  are  being 
carried  on  at  the  present  time.  This  shows  better  than 
anything  else  the  position  commanded  by  this  French 
zoologist  in  the  natural  science  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

After  a  long  lapse  of  time  the  field  of  organic  evolution 
is  now  represented  in  Paris  by  a  professorship  of  organic 
evolution  under  the  charge  of  Maurice  Caullery. 

(2)  Protoplasm.  The  consequences  that  followed  from 
the  discovery  of  protoplasm,  and  the  recognition  of  its 
true  nature,  form  another  notable  scientific  advance  of 


JEAN-BAPTISTE  LaMARCK  (i 744-1829) 


ZOOLOGY  333 

the  century.  Although  this  substance  had  been  casually 
observed  at  intervals  from  1755  onwards,  its  true  nature 
was  entirely  unrecognized.  The  turning  point  came 
when  Felix  Dujardin  (i 801-1860)  experimented  with 
it  and  distinguished  between  it  and  other  forms  of  matter, 
such  as  mucus,  gum,  gelatine,  albumen,  etc.,  with  which 
it  had  superficial  resemblance.  He  designated  it  "sar- 
code,"  recognized  it  as  the  physical  substratum  of  life, 
and  in  1835  announced  it  as  a  living  jelly  endowed  with 
all  the  properties  of  life.  This  idea  received  elaboration 
from  various  sources,  and,  finally,  culminated  in  the 
demonstration  by  Max  Schultze  (1861)  of  the  essential 
identity  of  all  living  substance  in  plants  and  animals  and 
now  designated  protoplasm.  This,  in  combination  with 
the  cell  theory  of  Schwann,  led  to  the  foundation  of 
biology  in  its  modern  sense,  and  Dujardin  ranks  as  the 
scientific  discoverer  of  protoplasm. 

(3)  Germ  Theory  of  Disease.  The  brilliant  work  of 
Pasteur  (1822-1895)  belongs  to  all  biology.  Starting 
his  scientific  career  as  a  chemist,  he  branched  into  bio- 
logical fields,  and  through  his  later  work  came  to  be 
recognized  as  one  of  the  foremost  men  of  biological 
history.  His  supreme  service  was  in  applying  the  re- 
sult of  biological  investigation  to  the  benefit  of  man- 
kind. In  laying  the  foundation  of  micro-parasitology 
(about  1875),  he  opened  a  subject  that  overlaps  the 
different  conventional  divisions  of  biology,  and  his  foun- 
dations have  been  built  upon  by  botanists,  zoologists, 
and  physicians.  His  investigation  gave  an  immense 
impulse  to  the  study  of  pathogenic  organisms;  and  while 
his  researches  supplied  the  foundations  of  scientific 
medicine,  at  the  same  time  they  opened  investigations 
in  the  life-history  of  micro-organisms  that  have  been  so 
extensively  developed  by  zoologists. 


334  ZOOLOGY 

His  studies  on  the  spontaneous  generation  of  life,  his 
observations  on  the  nature  of  fermentation,  on  the 
micro-organisms  causing  silkworm  diseases,  and  on  the 
floating  matter  of  the  air,  found  applications  in  physiology 
and  surgery  as  well  as  in  other  departments  of  biological 
investigation.  These  studies  also  formed  the  basis  from 
which,  by  a  series  of  ascending  steps,  he  rose  to  the  study 
of  toxins  and  antitoxins  and  to  the  formation  of  various 
serums  and  vaccines.  The  establishment  of  the  first 
Pasteur  Institute  in  Paris,  in  1888,  served  to  unify  his 
work  and  to  house  the  different  kinds  of  biological  inves- 
tigation he  had  set  under  way. 

The  temper  of  the  French  people  is  shown  in  the 
popular  vote  taken  in  1907,  that  placed  Pasteur  at  the 
head  of  all  their  notable  men.  This  is  significant  of  the 
cordiality  extended  by  the  French  mind  to  scientific 
investigation  and  to  intellectual  achievements. 

The  three  scientific  achievements  spoken  of  above  were 
of  general  application  to  all  biological  science.  We  may 
now  turn  attention  more  specifically  to  the  zoological 
side;  and,  in  doing  so,  it  tends  to  clearness  to  recognize 
that  some  of  the  subjects  of  the  medical  curriculum  are 
zoological  in  nature.  Such  subjects  as  anatomy,  histol- 
ogy, embryology,  and  physiology,  while  they  have  their 
practical  utility  for  medical  men,  are  divisions  of  the 
zoological  territory.  Likewise,  palaeontology,  which  has 
been  so  cultivated  by  French  investigators,  belongs  to 
the  morphological  side  of  zoology. 

(4)  Comparative  Anatomy.  The  morphological  and 
physiological  aspects  of  animals  constitute  the  foundation 
of  the  zoologist's  training.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  influence  of  Cuvier  (1769-183 2) 
was  dominant  in  zoology.  This  French  zoologist  and 
legislator   showed  great   zeal   for  the  study  of  animal 


ZOOLOGY  335 

structure;  he  founded  comparative  anatomy  and  verte- 
brate palaeontology.  The  influence  of  Linn^us  had 
been  to  arouse  an  interest  in  natural  history  and  in  the 
systematic  arrangement  of  animals;  but  Cuvier  directed 
attention  to  more  essential  features,  such  as  the  struct- 
ure, or  organization,  of  animals,  and  he  turned  the  current 
of  zoological  progress  into  better  and  more  promising 
channels.  In  his  investigations,  he  covered  the  whole 
field  of  animal  organization,  from  the  lowest  to  the  high- 
est; and,  combining  his  results  with  what  had  been 
accomplished  by  earlier  workers,  he  established  com- 
parative anatomy  on  broad  lines  C'Legons  d'anatomie 
comparee,"  1801-05)  as  an  independent  branch  of  natural 
science.  In  the  meantime  he  had  also  engaged  in  the 
study  of  fossil  vertebrates,  and  the  publication  of  his 
"Recherches  sur  les  ossements  fossiles"  (181 2)  founded 
the  science  of  vertebrate  palaeontology. 

Lamarck,  his  distinguished  contemporary,  observed 
the  fossil  remains  of  invertebrate  animals  and,  in  the 
early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  founded  inverte- 
brate palaeontology.  It  thus  appears  that  the  beginnings 
of  comparative  anatomy  of  living  animals  and  the  com- 
parative study  of  fossil  remains  rest  on  French  founda- 
tions. 

Simultaneously  with  the  earher  work  of  Cuvier,  the 
talented  Bichat  (1771-1801)  essayed  a  deeper  analysis 
of  animal  structure.  He  directed  attention  especially  to  the 
tissues  of  animals,  and  thereby  prepared  the  ground  for 
the  rise  of  histology. 

In  the  domain  of  comparative  anatomy,  the  work  of 
Cuvier  was  developed  in  France  by  Henri  Milne- 
Edwards  (1800-1885)  and  by  Lacaze-Duthiers  (1821- 
1901).  Milne-Edwards'  "Legons  sur  la  physiologic  et 
I'anatomie  comparee,"  in  fourteen  volumes,  1857-1881, 
is  a  mine  of  information  for  the  comparative  anatomist 


336  ZOOLOGY 

and  the  physiologist.  Lacaze-Duthiers,  by  numerous 
researches,  by  his  stimulating  influence  on  students,  and 
by  his  editorship  of  the  "Archives  de  Zoologie  experimen- 
tal et  generale"  did  much  to  further  the  progress  of 
comparative  anatomy. 

(5)  General  Physiology.  On  the  physiological  side 
there  has  been  no  investigator  that  has  surpassed  Claude 
Bernard  (1813-1878)  either  in  the  profundity  of  his 
researches  or  in  his  influence  on  the  progress  of  physiology. 
Building  upon  the  work  of  Harvey,  of  Haller,  and  of 
Johannes  Mueller,  he  broadened  physiology  and  gave 
to  it  a  distinctly  modern  aspect.  His  "Introduction  a 
I'etude  de  la  medecine  experimentale "  (1865)  establishes 
his  rank  as  the  foremost  expounder  of  experimental 
physiolog}''.  Among  his  notable  researches  is  the  dis- 
covery of  the  glycogonic  function,  or  sugar  formation 
of  the  liver,  one  of  the  first  and  most  complete  studies 
of  internal  secretions.  He  also  discovered  the  existence 
of  vaso-motor  nerves  and  experimentally  observed  their 
influence  in  regulating  the  blood  supply  to  different  parts 
of  the  body.  The  first  comprehensive  treatment  of 
general  physiology  was  contained  in  his  now  classic 
"Lemons  sur  les  phenomenes  de  la  vie  communs  aux 
animaux  et  aux  vegetaux."  He  gave  a  tremendous 
impulse  to  physiology,  and  takes  rank  with  the  foremost 
men  of  all  time  who  have  worked  in  this  field. 

Lamarck,  Claude  Bernard,  and  Pasteur,  who  may  be 
said  to  have  opened  in  biology  the  broad  fields  of  evolu- 
tion, physiology,  and  preventive  medicine,  represent  a 
triumvirate  of  strength  and  ability  worthy  to  stand  with 
the  limited  number  of  scientific  men  who  have  produced 
results  of  the  highest  value  to  the  intellectual  world. 

On  these  broad  foundations,  which  were  added  to  by 
the  productive  minds  of  other  nations,  the  French 
developed  a  line  of  university  studies  that  make  a  strong 


ZOOLOGY  337 

appeal  to  the  student  of  zoology,  and  we  may  now  give 
attention  to  the  opportunities  that  are  open  to  advanced 
students  of  this  science  in  their  universities. 

Opportunities     at    the    French     Universities. —  The 

French  universities  are  admirably  equipped  in  personnel 
and  material  for  training  biologists  for  university  posi- 
tions. The  incidental  advantages  are  to  be  placed  co- 
ordinate with  the  scientific.  To  miss  the  experience  of 
university  studies  in  Paris  is  to  lose  "one  of  the  greatest 
opportunities  of  the  intellectual  life."  To  a  penetrating 
quality  of  mind  the  French  university  professors  generally 
add  finish  and  refinement  in  the  presentation  of  the 
background  and  of  the  achievement  of  scientific  investi- 
gation. The  method  of  lecturing  in  France  is  character- 
ized by  thoroughness,  lucidity,  finish,  and  philosophical 
grasp ;  and  contact  with  these  excellent  models  is  invalu- 
able in  molding  the  standard  of  production  as  well  as 
of  literary  form  and  the  art  of  expression.  Nicholas 
Murray  Butler,  president  of  Columbia  University,  in 
writing  of  his  impressions  as  a  student  in  Paris,  makes 
this  pertinent  observation:  "For  the  first  time  the  Latin 
spirit  came  to  have  definite  meaning  and  reality.  It 
was  so  different  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  spirit  as  revealed 
in  America  and  so  different  from  the  Teutonic  spirit  as 
revealed  in  Berlin.  Somehow  it  seemed  subtler  and  more 
refined,  more  delicate  and  more  highly  civilized  than 
either." 

While  the  opportunities  at  Paris  are  alluring,  it  is  un- 
doubtedly a  better  plan  to  begin  one's  student  life  in 
France  at  one  of  the  provincial  universities.  One  is  less 
diverted,  and  comes  more  thoroughly  into  touch  with 
French  life;  and  there  is  no  lack  of  men  of  distinction  in  the 
various  universities  outside  of  Paris.  The  zoological 
student  might  do  well  to  start  at  Montpellier  (Duboscq), 


338  ZOOLOGY 

a  relatively  small  city,  where  opportunities  for  zoological 
instruction  are  excellent.  Bordeaux,  Grenoble  (Leger), 
Lyon  (Testut),  and  Toulouse  (Lecaillon)  also  offer 
especial  attractions.  The  French  universities,  although 
not  all  organized  on  the  same  scale  of  size,  are  on  a  parity 
as  regards  standards.  Some  of  the  universities  command 
a  foremost  place  on  account  of  the  presence  of  men  of 
unusual  distinction  on  their  faculties.  The  student  of 
zoology  should  select  his  university  according  to  the  pro- 
fessors and  the  facilities  for  study  in  the  particular  phase 
of  zoology  in  which  he  is  most  interested.  In  general, 
opportunities  will  be  wider  in  those  universities  having 
a  medical  as  well  as  a  scientific  faculty. 

Zoology.  To  enumerate  a  complete  list  of  zoological 
courses  would  be  tedious  and  needless;  they  are  set  forth 
in  the  various  annual  catalogues  published  under  the 
name  of  "Livret  de  I'Etudiant."  The  following  is 
merely  an  abbreviated  list  of  courses  that  serves  to  indi- 
cate the  range  of  subjects: 

At  the  Sorbonne,  the  distinguished  professor  Yves 
Delage  (author  of  "L'Heredite  et  les  grands  problemes 
de  la  biologie  generale,"  etc.)  supervises  work  in  zoology, 
comparative  anatomy,  and  physiology.  These  zoological 
courses  are  supplemented  by  Pruvot,  Houssay, 
Perrier,  Perez,  and  others.  The  complementary  work 
in  general  physiology  is  directed  by  Dastre  (textbook) 
and  general  biology  is  conducted  by  Le  Dantec. 
Maurice  Caullery  (exchange  professor  in  191 5-1 6  at 
Harvard  University)  offers  courses  in  embryology  and  the 
evolution  of  organized  beings,  and  also  directs  a  marine 
station  at  Wimereux  (Pas-de-Calais).  Other  seaside  sta- 
tions connected  with  the  University  of  Paris  are  at  Roscoff 
(Delage,  Director)  and  at  Banyuls  (Pruvot,  Director). 

The  Medical  Faculty  of  Paris  offers  courses  in  physi- 
ology by  RiCHET  ("Dictionnaire  de  Physiologie ")  and 


ZOOLOGY  339 

Langlois;  in  anatomy  under  Nicolas  ("Bibliographic 
anatomique") ;  in  parasitology  by  Blanchard  ("Traite 
de  zoologie")  and  by  Brumpt;  in  histology  by  Prenant 
(author  of  a  well-known  textbook  of  embryology);  and 
in  comparative  and  experimental  embryology  by  Loisel. 

At  the  College  de  France,  Henneguy  offers  work  in 
comparative  and  experimental  embryology,  and  at  the 
Laboratoire  de  Cytologic  courses  in  cytology.  General 
biology  is  under  the  charge  of  Gley,  and  histology  of  the 
nervous  system  under  Nagoette.  In  addition  should 
be  mentioned  the  laboratory  of  histology  directed  by 
Jolly. 

At  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  there  arc  ex- 
cellent opportunities  for  the  study  of  particular  divisions 
of  zoology,  as  under  Perrier,  comparative  anatomy; 
RouLE,  fishes,  amphibia,  and  reptiles;  Joubin,  annelids 
and  moUusks;  Bonnier,  entomology;  Trouessart, 
birds  and  mammals;  Boule,  palaeontology. 

At  the  Pasteur  Institute,  organized  for  complete  instruc- 
tion in  bacteriology,  serum  pathology,  etc.,  are  Roux,  the 
Director;  Metschnikoff  (author  of  researches  on  in- 
flammation, immunity,  etc.);  and  other  distinguished 
scholars. 

Zoology  has  also  been  enriched  by  French  investiga- 
tions along  special  lines  of  interest  giving  rise  to  sub- 
divisions of  its  larger  provinces.  There  are,  for  illustra- 
tion, unusual  opportunities  for  the  pursuit  of  proto- 
zoology and  parasitology,  of  entomology  and  palaeontology, 
especially  that  part  of  it  that  relates  to  the  fossil  remains 
of  man. 

Protozoology  and  Parasitology. —  In  regard  to  unicel- 
lular organisms,  there  has  been  created  the  department 
of  protozoology  with  especial  reference  to  pathogenic 
protozoa,  and  with  this  there  is  often  combined  the  study 
of  internal  parasites,  forming  the  subject  of  parasitology. 


340  ZOOLOGY 

In  France,  F.  Mesnil,  E.  Chatton,  and  others,  have 
been  leaders.  Incidentally,  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
until  recently  there  has  been  associated  with  the  Pasteur 
Institute  Laveran,  a  veteran  in  the  study  of  pathogenic 
protozoa,  whose  demonstration,  in  1880,  of  the  Plas- 
modium of  malaria  marks  almost  the  beginning  of  work 
in  parasitic  protozoology.  Besides  the  work  at  the 
Pasteur  Institute,  Raphael  Blanchard,  editor  of  the 
^'Archives  de  parasitologic,"  and  member  of  the  medical 
faculty  in  Paris,  offers  courses  in  parasitology.  Micro- 
biology and  parasitology  are  especially  provided  for  at 
the  Universities  of  Algiers,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  and 
Poitiers. 

Entomology. —  In  this  field,  including  life-histories, 
structure,  habits  and  relation  of  insects  to  the  organic 
world  the  French  annals  show  many  notable  names. 
On  the  structural  side,  comes  to  mind  the  famous  mono- 
graph of  Straus-Durckheim,  and  the  investigations  of 
Leon  DiiFOUR.  The  late  J.  Henri  Fabre  (1823-1915) 
holds  high  esteem  in  the  study  of  the  behavior  of  insects. 
His  ten  volumes  of  "Souvenirs  entomologiques "  are 
deservedly  world-famous.  Many  of  his  books  have  been 
translated  into  English  and  are  widely  known.  As  a 
successor  to  this  interesting  naturalist,  cultivating 
entomology  in  the  same  spirit  with  a  more  modern  direc- 
tion, may  be  mentioned  Pol  Marschal  at  the  Institut 
Agronomique.  The  courses  in  entomology  by  Bonnier 
have  been  already  indicated.  At  the  University  of 
Rennes  is  a  Station  of  Entomology,  giving  especial 
attention  to  insects  injurious  to  vegetation. 

Zoological  Palaeontology. —  As  already  stated,  the  in- 
vestigation of  extinct  animals  is  properly  included  in 
zoology,  since  they  were  merely  the  forerunners  of  living 
animals,  although  the  study  is  usually  pursued  under  a 
separate   division  of  science   designated   Palaeontology. 


GEORGES  CUVIER  (1769-1832) 
(From  a  painting  in  the  Sorbonne) 


ZOOLOGY 


ZOOLOGY  341 

While  the  whole  field  of  palaeontology  is  illuminating  to 
zoologists,  especial  interest  has  centered  about  the  fossil 
remains  of  man  that  are  already  throwing  so  much  light 
on  the  question  of  human  lineage.  Manouvrier,  of  the 
Medical  faculty,  Boule  of  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  and  other  Frenchmen  are  eminent  in  this  line. 
No  richer  territory  for  explorations  of  prehistoric  man 
have  been  opened  than  those  of  Southwestern  France 
in  the  region  of  the  Dordogne  and  the  Vezere.  Boule's 
many  investigations,  including  his  monograph  on  "Homo 
moustierensis,"  have  aroused  the  greatest  interest,  and 
the  student  of  fossil  remains  of  man  will  find  in  France 
excellent  opportunities  for  observation  and  instruction.^ 
Sundry  Subjects.  Some  special  courses  of  interest  to 
students  of  zoology  should  be  mentioned.  Connected 
with  the  University  of  Clermont-Ferrand  is  a  fresh  water 
station  devoted  chiefly  to  the  biology  of  rivers  and  lakes 
(Hmnology).  Courses  in  pisciculture  are  given  at  Nancy 
and  Toulouse,  and  at  the  latter  University  hydrobiology 
is  especially  designated.  History  of  the  natural  sciences 
is  offered  at  the  University  of  Lyon,  and  History  of  the 
medical  sciences  is  provided  for  in  the  medical  faculty 
of  Paris.  In  addition  to  the  marine  stations,  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  University  of  Paris,  are  those  at 
Cette,  in  Herault  (Duboscq,  of  Montpellier,  director); 
the  station  of  Arcachon,  organized  for  study  of  the 
fauna  of  the  Arcachon  basin  and  of  the  ocean,  and  con- 
nected with  the  University  of  Bordeaux;  the  laboratory 
of  Luc-sur-mer  of  the  University  of  Caen;  the  marine 
laboratory  du  Portel  of  the  University  of  Lille;  St.  Vaast- 
le-Hougue,  connected  with  the  Museum  and  directed  by 
E.  Perrier;  the  station  of  Lamaris-sur-mer,  connected 
with  the  University  of  Lyon;  and  the  research  station  at 

^  [See  also  the  paragraphs  on  Palaeontology,  in  the  Chapters  on  Geology 
and  Anthropology  in  this  volume. —  Ed.] 


342  ZOOLOGY 

Endoume,  connected  with  the  University  of  Marseille. 
L'Institut  Oceanographique,  maintained  by  Albert  the 
First,  Prince  of  Monaco,  possesses  an  unrivalled  laboratory 
and  equipment,  and  is  notable  for  contributions  to  the 
science  of  oceanography. 

Libraries,  Museiims,  Societies,  Periodicals.  As  ad- 
juncts to  the  pursuit  of  zoology  in  France  are  many 
scientific  establishments,  such  as  libraries,  museums, 
scientific  societies,  and  periodicals  for  the  publication  of 
results. 

The  library  facilities  of  Paris  are  notable,  with  the 
great  BibHotheque  Nationale  in  the  lead,  possessing 
more  than  3,500,000  volumes  and  500,000  pamphlets. 
The  library  of  the  Sorbonne  has  upwards  of  600,000 
volumes  and  the  medical  library  17,000.  University 
libraries  having  from  125,000  to  200,000  volumes  exist 
at  Lyon,  Lille,  Toulouse,  Nancy,  and  MontpelHer. 

Museums  of  interest  to  zoologists  are  found  at 
Besanfon,  Bordeaux,  Caen,  Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier, 
and  of  course  at  Paris. 

Scientific  societies  are  highly  organized  and  very  active 
in  Paris.  Many  have  their  separate  pubHcations.  Among 
those  of  interest  to  zoologists  may  be  mentioned :  "  Societe 
anatomique";  "Association  frangaise  pour  I'avance- 
ment  des  sciences";  "Societe  de  biologic";  "Societe 
entomologique" ;  "Societe  de  neurologic";  "Societe 
zoologique";  etc. 

Among  the  periodicals  for  the  publication  of  researches 
of  a  zoological  character  are  to  be  noted  the  following: 
"Archives  de  zoologie  experimentale  et  generale"; 
"Annales  de  ITnstitut  Pasteur";  "Archives  d'anatomie 
microscopique" ;  "Archives  de  parasitologic";  "L'An- 
thropologie";  "Bibliographic  anatomique";  "Bulletin 
scientifique    de  la  France  et  de  la  Belgique";  "Revue 


ZOOLOGY  343 

critique  de  paleozoologie" ;  "Revue  neurologique" ;  "Bul- 
letin de  rinstitut  oceanographique";  "Annales  de  I'ln- 
stitut  oceanographique";  etc. 

It  must  be  recognized  that  the  French  universities 
afford  great  opportunities  for  the  training  of  investiga- 
tors in  zoology  and  all  those  subjects  that  are  basal  to 
the  study  of  medicine.  The  distinctive  qualities  of 
French  instruction  are  fitted  to  supply  a  final  polish  to 
the  student  already  trained  in  the  rigorous  method  of 
the  scientific  laboratories.  The  judgment  and  the  fine 
feehng  of  the  University  professors  of  France  for  mental 
attributes  is  a  stimulus  and  a  direct  help  in  enabling  one 
toimprove  one's  own  standards  of  mental  activity  and  of 
Intellectual  production. 


Appendix  I 


Appendix  V 

Educational  Advantages  for  American 

Students  in  France;  with  a  History 

OF  the  Recent  Changes  in 

its  University  System 

I.    Past  and  Present. 

It  is  becoming  more  generally  recognized  that,  except  in  special 
cases,  an  American  student  has  no  need  of  going  abroad  to  secure 
what  was  formerly  unattainable  at  home.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  twentieth  century  the  situation  of  America  as  regards  educa- 
tion is  radically  different  from  what  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  With  the  rapidity  with  which  changes  take 
place  as  time  goes  on,  the  chances  are  that  the  changes  that  will 
have  taken  place  at  the  opening  of  the  twenty-first  century  will  be 
even  more  remarkable  to  contemplate  than  those  which  have 
occurred  during  the  century  just  closed. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  existed  a 
strong  intellectual  sympathy  between  France  and  America. 
Benjamin  Franklin,  during  his  ministry  in  France  (i 776-1 785), 
had  more  to  do  with  stimulating  this  friendly  feehng  than  any 
other  American  in  those  early  days.  Thomas  Jefferson,  however, 
Franklin's  successor  as  Minister  to  France  (1785 — 1789),  was  no 
whit  behind  his  illustrious  predecessor  in  encouraging  these  rela- 
tions between  the  two  countries.     It  was  while  in  Paris  that  he 

^[By  Professor  James  Geddes,  Jr.,  of  Boston  University. 
This  valuable  article,  containing  a  history  of  Franco-American  university 
relations,  first  appeared  in  Bostonia  (October,  1903,  January  and  April,  1904). 
It  was  separately  reprinted.  The  first  edition  was  soon  exhausted.  Owing  to 
repeated  calls  for  the  article,  it  finally  appeared  in  the  Waverley  Magazine  (Sep- 
tember, October,  and  November,  1908),  the  organ  of  the  North  American 
Teachers^  League.  In  its  final  form,  the  article  was  thoroughly  revised,  con- 
siderably augmented,  brought  to  date  of  1913,  and  reprinted.  By  consent  of 
the  author,  it  is  here  reproduced,  with  several  omissions  and  a  few  verbal 
changes.  —  Ed.] 

347 


348  APPENDIX  I 

conceived  the  idea  of  founding  an  academy  of  arts  and  sciences 
at  Richmond,  Va.,  which  should  have  branches  in  Baltimore,  Phila- 
delphia, and  New  York.  But  before  his  plans  could  be  matured 
the  French  Revolution  interrupted  them.  Nevertheless,  upon 
his  return  to  America  the  higher  education  continued  actively 
to  interest  him.  He  corresponded  with  the  French  political 
economist,  Dupont  de  Nemours,  upon  this  subject.  The  result 
of  this  correspondence  was  that  the  French  scholar  published  an 
essay  embodying  his  own  ideas  in  regard  to  education  in  the  United 
States.  French  was  then  the  language  of  international  communi- 
cation. France  had,  through  her  distinguished  writers,  contributed 
powerfully  to  enlarge  science.  In  Jefiferson's  opinion  the  only  two 
modern  nations  whose  career  deserved  to  be  closely  studied  were 
France  and  England. 

The  trend  of  ideas,  as  shown  by  Jefferson's  attitude,  turned 
gradually  but  persistently  in  another  direction,  towards  Germany. 
The  scholarly  methods  and  work  of  the  Germans  became  appre- 
ciated. Edward  Everett  was  the  first  American  to  take  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  at  Gottingen,  in  1817.  His  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  such  well-known  Americans  as  George 
Bancroft,  Basil  Gildersleeve,  and  William  Goodwin.  In  this 
country,  Yale  University  was  among  the  first  of  the  institutions 
of  learning  to  confer  this  degree,  in  1861;  Harvard  followed  in 
1875,  and  Johns  Hopkins  in  1878.  In  all  of  these  institutions 
the  reasons  for  conferring  this  degree  were  practically  those  for 
which  German  universities  gave  it.  That  is,  essentially,  that 
in  addition  to  college  instruction  the  student  must  have  had 
long  training  at  a  university  in  original  investigation  and  proven 
his  right  to  be  recognized  as  a  master  workman  by  university 
examination  and  the  publication  of  some  results  of  original 
research. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  if  France  and  England  hold  places 
of  importance  in  the  world  of  science,  they  are  not  the  only  coun- 
tries whose  ways  of  investigating  subjects  and  accompHshing 
results  are  considered  worthy  of  attention.  Particularly  since 
1870,  Germany  has  developed  remarkably,  both  materially  and 
intellectually.  During  the  nineteenth  century  the  prestige  of 
England,  due  largely  to  the  admirable  admininstration  of  her 
colonial  possessions,  has  not  failed  to  receive  due  recognition. 
Moreover,  the  ties  of  kinship,  mutual  interests,  and  common 
language  are  factors  that  must  ever  attract  American  students 


THE  OLD  SORBONNE.     FACADE 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES   IN  FRANCE    349 

toward  English  university  centers.  It  is,  therefore,  easy  to 
understand  why  Americans  went  to  the  universities  in  Berlin, 
Leipsic,  Bonn,  and  Heidelberg,  as  well  as  to  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge. The  influence  of  Americans  who  received  their  training 
in  German  universities  and  are  employed  as  teachers  in  many 
institutions  of  learning  throughout  the  United  States  has  been  very 
sensibly  felt.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  hundreds  of  American 
students  could  be  counted  in  German  university  centers.  The 
inducements  held  out  to  foreign  students  in  Germany  were  at- 
tractive. They  were  hospitably  received,  and  upon  presenting 
their  credentials  from  an  institution  whose  standing  is  known,  were 
ordinarily  duly  matriculated.  Two  years  of  serious  work  along 
their  chosen  lines,  together  with  a  thesis  showing  some  originality 
and  hard  work,  and  the  passing  of  an  examination  upon  the  entire 
field  covered,  constituted  a  fair  guarantee  of  receiving  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  philosophy.  The  value  of  this  degree  to  a  young  man 
intending  to  make  teaching  in  his  own  country  his  life  work  nobody 
will  be  disposed  to  question. 

XL    The  Effect  of  Centralization  in  France. 

The  advantage,  in  all  branches  of  learning,  of  a  sojourn  in 
France,  and  especially  in  Paris,  are  unsurpassed.  Nevertheless, 
even  for  Romance  studies,  our  students  have  gone  in  considerable 
numbers  to  Germany.  There,  as  has  just  been  shown,  besides  a 
hearty  welcome  and  advantages  of  a  high  order,  it  was  possible 
for  them  to  secure  a  reward  in  the  shape  of  something  tangible, 
which  upon  their  return  home  might  prove  of  the  most  valuable 
assistance  in  obtaining  positions.  These  advantages  were,  gen- 
erally speaking,  very  clearly  understood  by  American  students. 
Why  was  it,  then,  that  our  students,  who  during  the  past  fifty 
years  have  known  so  well  how  to  take  advantage  of  the  oppor- 
tunities offered  for  study  in  England  and  Germany,  have  not  been 
attracted  towards  a  friendly  country  no  less  distinguished  in  letters, 
arts,  and  sciences  than  the  other  two  foreign  countries? 

In  the  first  place,  because  the  organization  of  the  higher  educa- 
tion in  France  has  hardly  been  known.  Almost  everybody  in  the 
scholastic  world  has  heard  of  the  Universite  de  Paris,  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,and  of  the  College  de  France;  also,  perhaps,  of  the  Universite 
nationale-de  France,  the Ecole  pratique  deshautes  etudes,  and  sundry 
academies  or  universites  in  different  parts  of  France,  like  Toulouse 


350  APPENDIX  I 

Montpellier,  Bordeaux,  and  Grenoble.  But  just  what  these  insti- 
tutions are,  their  relation  to  the  State  or  to  each  other,  whether 
they  receive  foreign  students,  or  if  so,  whether  degrees  are  granted, 
were  questions  not  readily  answered  by  those  of  us  not  making  a 
specialty  of  educational  topics.  The  vicissitudes,  moreover, 
through  which  educational  institutions  along  with  everything  else 
in  France  passed  during  the  French  Revolution,  have  served  to 
make  the  status  of  higher  education  seem  more  complex  than  it 
really  is. 

The  Universite  de  Paris  still  exists,  bearing  at  least  the  name  of 
the  celebrated  old  seat  of  learning  that  came  formally  into  existence 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  A  century  later,  Robert 
de  Sorbon,  the  chaplain  and  confessor  of  St.  Louis,  founded  in  the 
University  of  Paris  a  school  of  theology.  This  school  became  one 
of  the  constituent  parts,  and  the  predominant  one,  giving  its  name 
to  the  entire  theological  faculty  in  the  University;  and  today  the 
University  of  Paris  itself  is  everywhere  familiarly  known  as  the 
"Sorbonne,"  although  the  latter  school  ceased  to  exist  in  1790. 
The  provincial  universities  in  France  arose  to  meet  the  wants  of  the 
districts  where  they  were,  at  different  epochs  after  the  founding 
of  the  University  of  Paris.  There  were  twenty-five  of  them,  of 
which  Toulouse,  founded  in  the  first  part  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  Montpellier,  in  the  latter  part,  were  the  oldest.  The  College 
de  France  was  founded  by  Francis  I,  in  1529.  The  king  believed 
that  the  University  of  Paris  was  devoting  too  much  attention  to 
some  subjects  and  not  enough  to  others.  It  was  designed  to  pro- 
mote the  more  advanced  tendencies  of  the  time  and  to  counteract 
the  scholasticism  taught  in  the  University.  The  Ecole  pratique 
des  hautes  eludes  is  a  unique  institution  of  comparatively  recent 
origin,  dating  from  the  Second  Empire  (1852). 

'  These  names,  then,  so  often  heard  in  connection  with  the  sub- 
ject of  education  in  France,  have  indicated  institutions  whose 
status  was  clearly  defined  and  easily  understood.  Why  is  it,  then, 
that  these  establishments  do  not  stand  forth  clearly  cut  like 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  Gottingen,  and  Bonn?  Both  the  names  of 
the  French  universities,  as  well  as  the  institutions  of  learning  them- 
selves, have  a  haze  about  them  that  is  absent  from  similarly  or- 
ganized faculties  of  learning  abroad. 

The  principal  reason  for  this  vagueness  is  that  at  the  time  of 
the  Revolution  the  entire  system  of  education  was  revolutionized. 
The  University  of  Paris,  as  well  as  all  the  provincial  universities, 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES  IN  FRANCE    351 

was  suppressed.  The  hand  of  Napoleon  then  made  itself  felt  in  the 
new  organization.  Centralization  in  education  became  the  order 
of  the  day.  The  universities,  originally  independent,  were  con- 
solidated into  one  great  institution,  the  Universite  nationale  de 
France,  of  which  the  Universite  de  Paris  and  the  faculties  at  Tou- 
louse, Montpellier,  and  elsewhere  in  the  provinces  were  sections 
known  as  academies.  The  whole  system  of  education  was  directly 
under  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  entirely  a  government 
affair.  Everything  went  on  automatically  and  with  such  clock- 
work precision  that  it  was  said  the  minister  could  tell  a  visitor  not 
only  what  subject  was  being  taught  throughout  France  at  a  par- 
ticular time,  but  the  verb  itself  that  was  being  conjugated  just  then 
in  all  the  schools. 

III.    Recent  Sweeping  Changes; 
The  "University  Degrees." 

Since  those  times  there  have  been  a  great  many  changes, 
covering  the  entire  educational  field  in  France.  Together  with 
colonial  expansion  and  the  reorganization  of  the  army,  the 
educational  transformation  is  the  most  considerable  undertak- 
ing the  government  has  accompHshed.  Characterized  briefly,  it 
is  this: 

Public  instruction  has  been  developed  in  all  directions  and 
withdrawn  as  far  as  possible  from  the  influence  of  the  church.  The 
laws  relating  to  primary  instruction  have  been  improved  and 
elementary  education  has  been  made  free  and  obligatory.  More- 
over, France  has  awakened  to  a  realization  of  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  by  making  her  educational  centers  attractive  to  foreign 
students.  Before  the  act  of  July  10,  1896,  higher  education  was 
entirely  under  the  control  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction. 
The  act  of  July  10,  i8g6,  did  away  with  State  control  of  the  insti- 
tutions for  higher  education,  giving  to  them  an  independent 
existence  of  their  own.  Thus  this  act  abolished  Napoleon's  consol- 
idated organization,  the  Universite  nationale  de  France,  and  restored 
the  academies  to  their  former  status  of  universities.  These  institu- 
tions are  no  longer  under  State  control,  for  the  regulations  govern- 
ing them  are  made  by  the  University  Council,  a  body  consisting 
of  the  principal  members  of  the  various  faculties.  Moreover, 
the  French  universities  now  have  a  legal  standing  like  that  of 
individuals,  and  may  receive  bequests  or  gifts  from  any  one 


352  APPENDIX  I 

desiring  to  aid  them  financially;  formerly  they  could  not  receive 
gifts  of  money. 

The  innovation  that  is  of  most  interest  to  American  students 
is  one  made  especially  to  attract  them,  as  well  as  foreign  students 
in  general,  to  the  various  French  seats  of  learning,  the  fifteen 
universities  in  the  different  sections  of  the  country.  It  pertains  to 
degrees,  and  especially  to  the  doctorate.  Formerly  the  only  pos- 
sible way  for  a  foreigner  to  secure  a  French  diplome  or  degree  from 
any  educational  institution  was  by  undergoing  the  same  training 
and  passing  the  same  examinations  prescribed  for  a  French  student. 
The  French  diploma  confers  rights  upon  the  one  holding  it.  For 
instance,  the  graduate  who  has  received  a  degree  from  the  medical 
school  has  the  right  to  practice  in  France;  the  graduate,  likewise, 
of  the  school  of  pharmacy  has  the  right  to  open  an  apothecary  shop ; 
so,  too,  the  law-graduate  has  a  right  to  practice  law  and  to  aspire 
to  judicial  government  positions;  and  the  graduate  of  the  different 
"  ecoles  normales  "  has  the  right  to  give  instruction  in  the  institution 
of  the  grade  for  which  he  has  fitted  himself.  The  French  student 
begins  at  the  age  of  sixteen  a  series  of  examinations,  the  first  of 
which  is  the  baccalaureate,  a  degree  which  represents,  speaking 
broadly,  attainments  somewhat  beyond  those  of  our  high-school 
graduates  but  considerably  below  those  of  our  best  colleges.  He 
then  goes  on  passing  an  examination  yearly  until  he  has  reached 
the  age  of  twenty-four  or  twenty-five  years,  when  he  should  pass 
his  final  examination  for  the  doctorate.  These  regulations  still  hold 
good  for  French  or  foreign  students  who  desire  to  practice  the 
learned  professions  in  France. 

Most  foreign  students,  however,  and  particularly  our  own,  have 
no  intention  of  pursuing  studies  with  a  view  of  competing  with 
natives  or  of  profiting  pecuniarily  by  their  foreign  acquisitions 
elsewhere  than  at  home.  As  a  rule,  American  students  desire  cer- 
tain advantages  procurable  by  a  residence  of  about  two  years  in  the 
foreign  country.  They  usually  have  had  a  college  course  at  home 
and  have  no  desire  to  spend  nine  years  in  France  in  order  to  be- 
come doctors  in  their  specialties.  Moreover,  they  can  ill  afford  to 
spend  two  years  of  hard  work  in  a  foreign  country  without  having 
an  opportunity  at  the  end  of  that  time  to  possess  a  substantial 
guarantee  vouching  for  the  genuineness  of  their  efforts.  From  the 
French  standpoint,  it  was  not  possible  for  the  French  institutions 
to  exempt  foreign  students  from  the  regular  course  or  to  credit 
them  with  work  done  in  foreign  parts,  without,  in  most  cases, 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES   IN  FRANCE    353 

giving  them  an  undue  advantage  over  their  own  students.  By  any 
such  method,  the  foreign  student  could  secure  a  State  degree  in  a 
relatively  shorter  time  than  the  native.  The  problem  was  to  adapt 
the  curriculum  to  meet  the  wants  of  foreign  students  while  pre- 
serving intact  the  rights  of  French  students.  This  the  act  of  1896 
accompUshed,  by  authorizing  the  universities  to  create  titles  of  a 
different  character  from  the  ones  conferring  State  rights  or  priv- 
ileges. In  no  case  can  the  former  degrees  be  considered  a  substi- 
tute for  the  latter.  These  new  degrees  were  known  as  "University 
degrees,"  instead  of  "State  degrees." 

The  different  universities  in  France,  in  accordance  with  the  act 
of  July  ID,  1896,  have  created  doctorates.  The  regulations  per- 
taining to  acquiring  this  title  are  made  by  the  university  conferring 
it,  but  practically  the  principle  governing  the  bestowal  of  the  de- 
gree is  the  same  in  all  of  the  sixteen  French  universities.  The 
State  degrees  remain  as  before,  open  to  all  foreigners  who  care  to 
submit  to  the  same  ordeal  to  obtain  them  as  do  the  native 
students. 

It  may  now  readily  be  seen  that  the  higher  education  in  France 
is  practically  upon  the  same  basis  as  that  in  the  universities  of  Ger- 
many or  at  the  graduate  schools  of  the  well-known  universities  in 
our  own  country.  The  system  governing  the  reception  of  foreign 
students,  the  splendid  advantages  offered,  and  the  bestowal  of  the 
doctorate  by  the  universities  in  France,  are  all  along  similar  lines 
that  in  Germany  have  long  proved  attractive  to  Americans.  The 
requirements  enabling  a  student  to  pursue  the  courses  in  any  one  of 
the  sixteen  French  universities — fitness  shown  by  examination,  or 
by  the  presentation  of  a  diploma,  or  certificate  or  degree,  from  a 
college  or  school  of  high  standing  —  are  practically  the  same  as 
those  called  for  in  order  to  pursue  courses  in  any  one  of  the  twenty- 
six  universities  in  Germany.  The  sixteen  French  universities,  each 
with  four  or  five  faculties  (Letters,  Law,  Science,  Medicine,  Phar- 
macy), now  stand  forth  as  clearly  defined  as  the  twenty-six  sister 
universities  in  Germany. 

The  act  which  has  effected  the  great  changes  described  in  the 
organization  of  the  French  educational  system,  and  particularly 
changed  the  attitude  towards  foreign  students  of  all  the  institu- 
tions for  the  higher  education  in  France,  is  so  important  that  before 
going  on  to  speak  of  the  different  universities  it  will  be  of  interest 
to  learn  something  of  the  prime  movers  who  brought  about  modi- 
fications so  beneficial  and  so  far-reaching. 


354  APPENDIX  I 

IV.    Origin  of  the  Recent  Changes. 

It  seems  a  little  odd  that  an  American  who,  like  many  of  his 
countrymen,  after  finishing  his  college  course  in  America,  had  com- 
pleted his  studies  in  Germany  by  taking  the  degree  Ph.  D.  at  Halle, 
should  have  been  the  first  to  bring  the  matter  of  reorganization  of 
the  higher  education  in  France  to  the  attention  of  the  French  au- 
thorities. After  having  made,  in  1895,  quite  a  thorough  examina- 
tion of  the  principal  schools  in  Paris,  particularly  the  Sorbonne, 
College  de  France,  Ecole  des  hautes  etudes,  Mr.  Harry  J.  Furber, 
a  graduate  of  the  University  of  Chicago  (1886),  and  for  a  number 
of  years  a  student  abroad  and  in  foreign  universities,  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  advantages  which  it  might  be  possible  for  Amer- 
ican students  to  procure  in  Paris  were  extraordinary.  He  then 
asked  himself  why  it  was  that,  notwithstanding,  there  were  but 
thirty  American  students  enrolled  at  the  Sorbonne,  while  at  the 
same  time  at  the  University  of  Berlin  there  were  over  two  hundred. 
Moreover,  if  a  count  were  made  of  all  American  students  pursuing 
courses  in  the  twenty-six  German  universities,  the  sum  total  of 
more  than  a  thousand  would  offer  a  still  more  unfavorable  and 
striking  contrast  for  France  to  the  total  number  of  American  stu- 
dents enrolled  in  the  latter  country's  sixteen  university  centers. 
As  regards  the  number  of  artists  and  sculptors  studying  in  Paris, 
the  sum  total  of  Americans  among  them  proved  clearly  the  superior 
attractiveness  of  the  French  capital  to  them  as  an  art  center  over 
all  other  places.  Mr.  Furber  realized  that  if  the  figures  showed  in 
the  domain  of  letters  so  marked  a  predilection  on  the  part  of 
American  students  for  German  university  centers,  the  inducements 
offered  there  in  science  and  letters  must  be  far  superior  to  those 
offered  in  France.  He  then  found  what  has  already  been  shown; 
namely,  that  the  regulations  in  force,  while  doubtless  well  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  French  students,  were  entirely  unsuitable  to  the 
wants  of  foreign  students,  and  particularly  Americans.  Mr.  Fur- 
ber then  drew  up  a  memorial  stating  the  case  clearly  to  M.  Poin- 
care,  the  minister  of  public  instruction.  These  ideas,  of  which  a 
summary  has  here  been  presented,  were  given  to  the  general  public 
in  an  article  pubhshed  in  the  Journal  des  Debats,  of  June  7, 1895, 
by  M.  Michel  Breal,  a  member  of  the  Institute  and  a  professor  at 
the  College  de  France.  Moreover,  M.  Breal  made  a  strong  plea 
for  the  advantages  offered  outside  of  Paris  by  the  provincial  uni- 
versities.    Nowhere,  he  said,  could  French  life  in  all  its  intimacy 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES  IN  FRANCE     355 

and  purity  be  so  well  studied  as  in  the  dilJerent  French  provinces. 
As  examples  of  admirably  equipped  institutions,  he  cited  those  of 
Lyon  and  Lille;  while  others  peculiarly  endowed  by  nature  with 
a  rare  climate  and  superb  physical  attractions  are  Dijon,  Toulouse, 
Bordeaux,  and  Montpellier.  Were  he  to  begin  life  over  again,  he 
would  be  a  student  nowhere  else  than  at  Grenoble,  the  great  natural 
beauties  of  which  are  so  familiar  to  so  many  of  our  tourists.  Paris, 
he  concluded,  may  well  be  kept  for  the  last  semester  and  fittingly 
crown  the  foreign  student's  sojourn  in  France. 

The  result  of  this  article  from  the  pen  of  so  distinguished  an 
educator  as  M.  Breal  was  the  formation,  about  a  fortnight  later, 
of  a  committee  composed  of  the  best  known  and  influential  men  in 
the  educational  world  in  and  around  Paris. 

M.  Breal  addressed  the  meeting,  supporting  by  word  what  had 
already  appeared  in  print.  The  discussion  was  participated  in  by 
MM.  Bonet-Maury,  Greard,  Lavisse,  Maspero,  Paul  Mellon, 
Paul  Meyer,  and  Parrot.  In  the  course  of  the  discussion,  the  sym- 
pathy and  encouragement  of  M.  Hanotaux,  the  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  of  M.  Poincaire,  of  public  instruction,  were  clearly 
shown  by  their  approval  of  the  plan  or  form  a  Franco-American 
committee.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Furber  voiced  the  equally 
hearty  support  of  His  Excellency,  the  ambassador  of  the  United 
States,  for  this  movement  towards  closer  intellectual  afiiliation. 
A  commission  was  then  and  there  (June  26,  1895)  appointed  to 
study  into  the  question  of  how  to  facilitate  the  entrance  of  American 
students  into  French  schools,  and  what  inducements  might  prop- 
erly be  held  out.  So  important  and  far-reaching  have  been  the 
results  attained  by  this  commission  that  it  must  be  of  interest  to 
American  students  to  know  who  the  men  are  who  have  been  instru- 
mental in  securing  for  them  such  magnificent  opportunities  for 
study  as  are  now  to  be  had  at  a  mere  nominal  cost  in  France.  The 
members  of  the  French  commission  were  MM.  Bonet-Maury,  Pro- 
fessor in  the  Theological  School;  Michel  Breal,  of  the  Institute, 
Professor  in  the  College  de  France;  Bufnoir,  Professor  in  the  Law 
School;  Darboux,  of  the  Institute,  Professor  in  the  Scientific  School; 
Giry,  then  Professor  in  the  ficole  des  Chartes;  Lavisse,  of  the  French 
Academy;  Levasseur,  Prof essor  in  the  College  de  France;  Maspero, 
of  the  Institute;  Paul  Mellon,  Secretary  of  the  Commission;  Paul 
Meyer,  of  the  Institute,  Director  of  theEcoledes  chartes;  Gabriel 
Monod,  Professor  in  the  Ecole  pratique  des  hautes  etudes ;  Schef er,  of 
the  Institute,  then  Director  of  the  Ecole  des  langues  orientales 


356  APPENDIX  I 

vivantes.  The  name  of  the  French  ambassador  to  the  United 
States,  at  that  time  M.  Jules  Cambon,  was  afterwards  added  to 
the  Ust. 

To  cooperate  with  this  commission  and  aid  the  members  in  ren- 
dering their  efforts  as  effective  as  possible,  in  accordance  with  Pro- 
fessor Furber's  suggestion,  the  following  committee,  chosen  from 
distinguished  American  educators,  was  appointed:  President 
Angell  of  the  University  of  Michigan;  President  D wight  of  Yale 
University;  President  Eliot  of  Harvard  University;  President  Gil- 
man  of  Johns  Hopkins  University;  G.Brown  Goode,  Assistant  Sec- 
retary in  the  United  States  National  Museum;  E.  R.  L.  Gould,  Sec- 
retary of  the  International  Statistical  Association;  President  G. 
Stanley  Hall  of  Clark  University;  Wm.  T.  Harris,  U.  S.  Commis- 
sioner of  Education;  S.  P.  Langley,  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institute;  President  Seth  Low  of  Columbia  College;  Simon  New- 
comb,  U.  S.  N.,  Superintendent  of  the  Nautical  Almanac;  President 
Schurman  of  Cornell  University;  Andrew  D.  White,  ex-Minister 
to  Germany;  President  B.  L.  Whitman  of  Columbian  University; 
Carroll  D.  Wright,  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Labor.  The  commission 
and  the  committee  together  constituted  the  Franco-American 
Committee. 

Immediately  an  active  campaign  to  further  the  common  cause 
was  begun  by  both  the  members  of  the  commission  and  those  of 
the  committee.  In  the  way  of  propaganda,  one  of  the  best  contri- 
butions appeared  in  the  Forum,  New  York,  May,  1897,  from  the 
pen  of  Simon  Newcomb.  This  article  was  entitled  "France  as  a  Field 
for  American  Students."  The  advantages  to  be  had  by  the  Amer- 
ican students  at  the  Sorbonne,  College  de  France,  and Ecole  pratique 
des  hautes  etudes  were  well  set  forth.  The  article  appeared  before 
the  creation  of  the  degree  of  doctor  of  the  university;  nevertheless, 
the  comparison  between  the  French  system  then  in  vogue  and  the 
German  system  is  luminous  and  will  repay  reading  at  any  time. 
Another  able  article,  most  sympathetically  written,  and  showing 
the  friendly  feeling  between  France  and  America  during  critical 
periods  in  the  history  of  both,  aimed  to  bring  about  closer  intel- 
lectual relations  in  the  immediate  future.  This  article,  by  Pro- 
fessor Raphael  George  Levy,  of  the  Ecole  libre  des  sciences  poHtiques, 
was  pubHshed  in  the  Revue  Internationale  del'enseignement  for  Feb- 
ruary, 1897.  In  1899,  the  Franco-American  Committee,  87  boule- 
vard Saint-Michel,  pubHshed  a  pamphlet  containing  in  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-eight  pages  a  clear  account  of  the  system  of  higher 


THE  NEW  SORBONNE.     FACADE 


THE  NEW  SORBONNE.     GENERAL  VIEW 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES  IN  FRANCE    357 

education  in  France,  together  with  the  changes  recently  effected, 
and  making  requirements  for  the  doctorate  perfectly  clear.  This 
publication  has  done  much  to  do  away  with  the  lack  of  compre- 
hension in  regard  to  the  status  of  the  French  universities.  The 
Comite  de  patronage  des  etudiants  etrangers,  office  in  the  Sor- 
bonne,  issued  a  luminous  pamphlet,  entitled:  "New  Diplomas  of 
the  French  Universities;  doctorate,  license  diplomas,  certificates  of 
studies;  for  the  especial  use  of  foreign  students."  Finally,  in  1907, 
there  appeared  in  the  October  number  of  the  Echo  des  deux  mondes, 
issued  in  Chicago,  perhaps  the  best  French  periodical  published  in 
the  United  States,  a  concise  summary  of  information  upon  the 
entire  subject,  with  practical  hints  to  aid  students  going  to  France 
for  study.  This  summary  was  entitled ' '  Conseil  aux  Americains, ' '  and 
was  written  by  M.  Robert  Dupouey  of  the  faculty  of  the  University 
of  California.  The  substance  of  this  useful  article  appeared  in 
English  in  the  University  of  California  Chronicle,  vol.  IX,  No.  4, 
1907,  and  was  also  separately  printed. 

There  seems  now  to  be  hardly  any  reason  why  a  student  intend- 
ing to  study  abroad  should  not  obtain  quite  as  clear  an  idea  of  the 
university  system  in  France  and  the  opportunities  it  offers  as  of  the 
German  university  system  and  its  advantages.  To  all  of  the  above 
mentioned  articles,  and  especially  to  the  useful  report  of  the  Franco- 
American  Committee,  the  writer  of  the  present  article  desires  to 
acknowledge  his  indebtedness, 

V.    The  University  of  Paris. 

Of  the  sixteen  French  universities,  the  University  of  Paris,  or 
the  Sorbonne,  is  by  far  the  most  renowned.  It  possesses  traditions, 
like  those  of  Salerno  and  Bologna,  that  only  centuries  of  existence 
can  give.  The  most  influential  scholars  have  been  and  still  are 
connected  with  its  teaching  force.  Of  the  original  building  con- 
structed by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  1629  for  the  Sorbonne,  then  the 
theological  faculty  of  the  University  of  Paris,  the  Church  is  the  only 
portion  that  has  been  preserved.  Since  1885  extensive  building 
operations,  only  recently  finished,  have  been  going  on,  and  now 
the  University  of  Paris  possesses  one  of  the  finest  and  costliest 
structures  for  educational  needs  to  be  found  in  all  Europe.  The 
front  of  the  building  is  on  the  rue  des  Ecoles,  just  opposite  the 
Hotel  de  Cluny,  the  site  of  the  palace  and  baths  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors.   The  beautiful  new  home  of  the  University  of  Paris  is 


358  APPENDIX   I 

the  seat  of  the  French  Academy  and  of  the  faculties  of  Letters, 
Science,  and  Theology.  The  large  amphitheater  in  the  interior  of 
the  building,  where  public  functions  take  place,  will  hold  three 
thousand  five  hundred  persons.  This  hall  contains  statues  of 
Sorbon,  Richelieu,  and  RolHn,  who  so  identified  themselves  with 
the  university,  and  of  the  eminent  French  scientists,  Descartes, 
Pascal,  and  Lavoisier.  At  the  end  of  the  hall  is  the  celebrated 
painting  The  Sacred  Grove,  by  Puvis  de  Chavannes.  Other  por- 
tions of  the  interior  of  the  Sorbonne  are  beautifully  decorated  by 
celebrated  artists. 

At  the  five  faculties  constituting  the  University  of  Paris,  law, 
letters,  science,  medicine,  and  pharmacy,  the  total  number  of  stu- 
dents registered  and  in  attendance  at  the  courses  during  the  year 
1906-1907  was  15,789.  The  lectures  are  free  to  the  public.  In 
some  cases  in  which  the  subject  itself  or  the  lecturer  is  popular,  the 
halls  are  apt  to  be  crowded,  and  to  obtain  a  seat  it  is  necessary  to 
be  on  hand  early.  The  courses  in  literature  are  much  frequented 
by  ladies.  This  fact  has  been  made  the  subject  of  much  good- 
humored  pleasantry  by  French  writers.  In  Edouard  Pailleron's 
comedy,  Le  Monde  oil  Von  s'ennuie  (which  was  very  successful  and 
now  belongs  to  the  repertoire  of  the  Comedie  Franjaise)  the  author 
has  amusingly  set  before  the  public  the  kind  of  fetich  worship  offered 
to  a  popular  professor  by  his  fair  constituency.  There  are,  besides 
the  free  lectures,  courses  called  "cours  f  ermes, ' '  where  the  personnel  is 
restricted  to  the  competency  of  those  desiring  to  pursue  them. 

As  regards  impartiahty  in  granting  equal  advantages  to  men 
and  women,  as  well  as  liberality  in  offering  educational  opportuni- 
ties that  are  almost  absolutely  free  of  expense  to  all,  France  is  un- 
surpassed by  any  other  nation.  The  function  of  offering  exam- 
inations and  giving  degrees  is  kept  rigidly  distinct  from  that  of 
offering  instruction.  The  student  pays  for  the  former,  but  the 
latter  is,  save  in  rare  instances,  absolutely  free. 

Inasmuch  as  the  department  of  science  is  strictly  separated 
from  that  of  letters,  the  courses  given  at  the  Faculty  of  Letters  will 
be  found  to  be  much  along  the  lines  laid  down  in  the  catalogs  of 
American  universities  and  applicable  to  the  courses  given  in  the 
college  proper,  omitting  those  devoted  to  the  sciences  and  mathe- 
matics. In  brief,  they  consist  of  culture  studies,  and  largely  of 
those  so  highly  esteemed  of  old,  and  which,  coming  down  through 
the  ages,  still  hold  their  own  amid  the  multitudinous  subjects  that 
are  claiming  recognition  because  of  rapid  changes  in  civilization. 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES  IN  FRANCE    359 

These  long-accepted  and  cherished  studies  are  Philosophy,  History, 
Greek,  Latin,  French,  Foreign  Language  and  Literature,  Political 
Economy  and  Sociology,  all  of  them  in  their  different  phases  and 
relations  to  allied  topics;  in  a  word,  the  humanities,  using  the  word 
in  the  broadest  possible  sense.  A  subject  not  usually  put  down  in 
the  curriculum  of  American  colleges  or  universities  is  Geography, 
to  which  much  attention  is  given  in  the  faculty  of  letters  of  all  the 
French  universities.  Like  the  other  subjects  making  up  the 
courses,  it  is  gone  into  very  thoroughly,  and  there  appear  courses  in 
modern,  ancient,  physical,  colonial,  and  commercial  geography.  Po- 
litical Economy  and  Sociology  figure  on  the  prospectus  of  the  fac- 
ulty of  letters  of  the  University  of  Paris,  yet  not  as  prominently  as 
in  the  law-school  course.  It  is  in  the  latter  faculty  that  the  sub- 
ject is  almost  wholly  pursued  in  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  other  French 
universities.  French  Literature,  French  History,  and  French  Philos- 
ophy appear  to  be  the  centers  to  which  attention  is  strongly  di- 
rected. It  is  undoubtedly  due  in  a  large  measure  to  this  fact  that 
France  has  in  the  past  produced  such  brilliant  philosophers,  his- 
torians, and  litterateurs.  This  trend  in  the  direction  of  studies  cer- 
tainly appears  sensible  from  a  practical  standpoint,  for  it  would 
seem  to  be  a  duty  to  be  well  informed  in  regard  to  what  directly 
concerns  one's  native  land  and  those  who  influence  thought  within 
its  borders. 

Besides  the  ancient  languages,  Greek  and  Latin,  whose  litera- 
ture and  philology  receive  a  good  share  of  attention,  Sanskrit  and 
Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Indo-European  languages  are  studied 
under  some  of  the  foremost  scholars  in  this  department  of  lin- 
guistics. European  literature,  undoubtedly,  embraces  considerable 
of  the  best  in  the  field  in  northern  and  southern  Europe.  The  stress 
appears  to  be  laid  rather  on  the  literary  side  of  language  than  on 
the  philological.  This  feature  is  in  contrast  with  the  curricula  in 
some  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  in  the  United  States, 
where  the  emphasis  is  rather  on  the  linguistic  or  philological  side  of 
language  than  on  the  literary.  The  two  foreign  languages  to  which 
most  time  and  attention  are  given  at  the  University  of  Paris  are 
German  and  English,  fully  warranted  by  their  importance.  Paleog- 
raphy, generally  speaking,  is  a  subject  that  appears  quite  prom- 
inently in  the  courses  offered  by  the  faculties  of  letters  in  France, 
and  for  the  study  of  which  Paris  has  opportunities  that  are  un- 
surpassed. American  Institutions  and  Literature  have  within 
recent  years  been  given  a  place. 


36o  APPENDIX  I 

The  Faculty  of  Sciences  at  the  University  of  Paris  embraces 
purely  scientific  subjects.  They  are  treated  widely  in  all  their 
many  phases,  just  as  letters  are  in  the  Faculty  of  Letters.  The  sub- 
jects pursued  are :  Astronomy,  Botany,  Chemistry,  Geology,  Mathe- 
matics in  all  the  higher  branches.  Mechanics,  Mineralogy,  Physical 
Geography,  Physics,  Physiology,  and  Zoology.  No  subjects,  for 
instance,  like  Language,  Letters,  or  Political  Economy,  such  as  are 
taught  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  more  or  less 
in  connection  with  work  in  science,  are  found  on  the  program 
of  studies  of  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  The  former  subjects  are  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  the  department  of  letters,  and  to  this  latter 
faculty,  consequently,  they  are  relegated.  The  prominence  given 
now  in  some  of  our  scientific  schools  to  Engineering,  Architecture, 
and  Landscape  Architecture  is  due  to  the  development  of  these  sub- 
jects in  recent  years  in  this  country.  Although  these  topics  are  not 
to  be  found  on  the  program  of  the  French  faculties  of  science,  the 
subjects  themselves  have  long  received  the  most  careful  attention 
in  French  technical  schools. 

The  Faculty  of  Law  of  the  University  of  Paris  offers  about  forty 
courses  given  by  as  many  different  professors.  Compared  with  the 
courses  given  in  our  law  schools  of  good  standing,  the  Paris  courses 
are  not  so  technical,  and,  speaking  broadly,  have  considerable  more 
educational  value.  There  are  no  less  than  fifteen  courses  on  political 
and  economical  science,  a  number  of  which,  like  Comparative 
Social  Economy,  Public  International  Law,  History  of  Economic 
Doctrines,  are  of  much  general  interest  and  value.  Judging  by  the 
program  of  courses  recently  made  at  the  Boston  University  School 
of  Law,  that  is,  the  introduction  of  courses  on  International,  Co- 
lonial, and  Consular  Law,  it  would  appear  that  in  the  future  more 
such  courses  as  are  offered  abroad,  and  which  are  of  educational 
value  to  all,  are  likely  to  be  given  in  our  law  schools  here.  The 
impetus  in  this  direction  is  in  a  large  measure  due  to  national  ex- 
pansion. 

The  courses  offered  by  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  are  similar  to 
those  that  appear  on  the  programs  of  our  best  medical  schools. 
About  sixty  professors  give  as  many  courses  either  at  the  school 
itself,  in  the  Place  de  I'Ecole-de-Medecine,  or  at  various  hospitals 
in  the  city.  As  pointed  out  in  comparing  the  announcement  of  the 
law-school  courses  with  similar  ones  in  this  country,  the  French 
medical  schools  likewise  may  possibly  offer  a  few  more  popular  or 
less  technical  courses  than  can  be  found  in  the  American  schools  of 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES   IN  FRANCE    361 

medicine.  At  least  the  subjects  of  some  of  the  courses,  Hygiene, 
Physiology,  Biological  Physics,  and  Biological  Chemistry,  suggest 
courses  of  educational  value  that  may  not  be  and  probably  are  not 
intended  exclusively  for  specialists. 

The  studies  pursued  at  the  Ecole  superieure  de  Pharmacie  are 
Analytical  Chemistry,  Galenic  Pharmacy,  Mineral  Chemistry, 
Natural  History  of  Medicaments,  Physics,  Zoology.  Over  a  year 
of  study  is  required  at  the  school,  and  finally  the  presentation  of  a 
thesis  containing  personal  research,  which  the  candidate  for  a 
degree  is  called  upon  to  elucidate. 

As  already  stated,  there  is  no  longer  a  sixth  faculty,  that  of  the 
Ecole  de  Theologie  protestante.  The  courses,  however,  at  this  school 
continue  to  be  given  by  ten  professors,  and  are  similar  to  those  laid 
down  in  the  curricula  of  may  Protestant  theological  schools  in  this 
country.  They  include  Ecclesiastical  History,  Evangelical  Ethics, 
German,  History  of  Philosophy,  Lutheran  Dogma,  New  Testament, 
Old  Testament,  Organization  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  France, 
Patristics,  Practical  Theology,  Reformed  Dogma,  Revelation,  and 
Holy  Scripture. 

VI.    The  Provincial  Universities. 

The  fifteen  universities  outside  of  Paris  and  in  the  different 
sections  of  France  are  Aix,  Algiers,  Besanfon,  Bordeaux,  Caen, 
Clermont-Ferrand,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier, 
Nancy,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  Toulouse.  As  their  curricula  are  modeled 
in  a  measure  upon  that  at  the  University  of  Paris,  no  detailed  de- 
scription of  them  is  necessary.  None  of  them  possesses,  for  ob- 
vious reasons,  the  unrivaled  opportunities  found  at  the  University 
of  Paris.  Nevertheless,  by  this  is  not  implied  that  they  are  lacking 
in  attractiveness  either  of  natural  or  intellectual  resources.  Indeed, 
the  natural  attractions  of  many  of  these  institutions  appeal  to 
many  more  strongly  than  the  city  advantages  of  Paris.  With  the 
exception  of  the  universities  of  Besanjon  and  Clermont-Ferrand, 
which  have  only  the  three  faculties,  Letters,  Science,  and  Medicine, 
the  remaining  provincial  universities  have  four  faculties:  Law,  Let- 
ters, Science,  and  Medicine;  or  five,  counting  the  schools  of  Phar- 
macy, usually  comprised  in  the  medical  schools.  Toulouse  had, 
like  the  University  of  Paris,  before  the  law  of  December  9,  1905,  of 
separation  of  church  and  state,  a  faculty  of  Protestant  Theology. 
The  universities  of  Bordeaux,  Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  and 


362  APPENDIX  I 

Toulouse  are  among  the  most  important,  by  reason  of  their  equip- 
ment and  advantages,  of  the  provincial  universities.  Some  of  the 
others,  however,  have  in  some  respects  advantages  superior  to  any- 
one of  the  six  just  named. 

It  is  possible,  too,  that  each  one  of  these  university  centers,  by 
reason  of  its  situation,  or  of  particular  circumstances,  may  possess, 
and  probably  does  possess,  superior  advantages  to  any  other  for 
pursuing  special  branches.  Thus,  because  of  the  fine  laboratories, 
extensive  collections,  agricultural  stations,  botanical  gardens  and 
museums  in  Bordeaux,  Agriculture,  Natural  Sciences,  and  Chemistry 
applied  to  industry  are  all  especially  studied.  Among  the  courses 
at  the  Faculty  of  Letters  serving  to  differentiate  the  curriculum  from 
that  offered  by  other  institutions  are  found:  History  of  Bordeaux 
and  the  Southwest  of  France,  Language  and  Literature  of  the  South- 
west of  France,  Hispanic  Studies.  The  University  of  Lille,  in  the 
ancient  capital  of  Flanders,  near  the  Belgian  frontier,  possesses  very 
fine  material  as  well  as  intellectual  equipment.  Among  the  courses 
at  the  Faculty  of  Letters,  one  will  hardly  fail  to  note,  because  not 
found  elsewhere,  Walloon  and  Picardy  Language  and  Literature. 
The  situation  of  the  university  in  the  heart  of  the  Walloon  district 
is  in  itself  an  advantage  in  pursuing  this  specialty  such  as  no  other 
university  possesses.  The  University  of  Lyon,  in  one  of  the  finest 
cities  in  France,  not  far  from  Switzerland,  possesses  exceptional 
advantages  for  the  study  of  Archaeology.  Industrial  and  agricul- 
tural Chemistry  holds  an  important  place  among  the  sciences.  The 
influence  of  the  silk  industry,  as  well  as  of  the  metallurgic  industry 
of  the  region,  is  traceable  among  the  courses  offered  by  the  faculty 
of  science.  The  study  of  Psycho-physiology  is  one  of  the  specialties 
of  this  university.  In  the  department  of  letters  a  course  on  the 
History  of  Lyon  is  noticeable.  The  University  of  Montpellier  is  a 
most  active  intellectual  center.  The  Faculty  of  Medicine,  to  which 
Rabelais  belonged,  and  added  lustre  by  his  efforts  in  its  behalf,  still 
retains  its  ancient  prestige.  The  Jardin  des  plantes  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  Europe.  It  contains  a  great  number  of  rare  trees  and 
plants.  Botany  and  Natural  Sciences  are  among  the  most  popular 
studies  at  Montpellier.  Moreover,  the  Comite  de  patronage  des 
etudiants  etrangers  has  recently  issued  a  circular  from  the  Universite 
de  Montpellier,  announcing  that  during  the  winter  semester  of 
1908-1909,  courses  adapted  particularly  to  foreign  students  will 
be  offered.  The  program,  embracing  subjects  in  French,  ItaUan, 
Spanish,  and  Romance  Philology,  appears  very  attractive.    Among 


THE  SORBONNE.     AMPHITHEATRE 


THE  SORBONNE.     PERISTYLE 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES  IN  FRANCE    363 

the  courses  in  letters  at  the  University  of  Nancy,  in  the  ancient 
capital  of  Lorraine,  are  to  be  noted  one  on  German  Philology,  an- 
other on  History  of  the  East  of  France. 

At  the  University  of  Toulouse,  in  the  ancient  capital  of  Langue- 
doc,  more  attention  is  given  by  the  Faculty  of  Letters  to  the  study 
of  the  Spanish  language  and  literature  than  elsewhere  in  France. 
The  annual  competition  on  the  subjects  of  poetry  and  eloquence 
still  takes  place  in  Toulouse,  pleasantly  commemorating  the  famous 
Jeux  floreaux,  instituted  there  in  1323.  At  the  universities  of  lesser 
importance  than  those  just  named,  courses  in  certain  subjects  will 
be  found  which  do  not  appear  at  all  elsewhere.  Thus  at  Aix,  in 
Provence,  not  far  from  Marseilles,  the  Faculty  of  Letters  offers  sev- 
eral fine  courses  on  Provenfal  History,  Language,  and  Literature. 
The  University  of  Caen,  situated  in  the  very  heart  of  Normandy, 
offers  a  course  on  Norman  Art  and  Literature,  which  cannot  but  be 
of  considerable  interest  to  students  of  art  and  architecture. 
Grenoble,  in  the  midst  of  the  Alps,  not  far  from  Italy,  is  beautifully 
situated,  possessing  the  warmth  of  a  southern  sun  tempered  by  the 
coolness  of  the  mountains.  There  is  an  Italian  colony  in  the  town, 
and  the  Faculty  of  Letters  offers  a  course  in  Italian  Language  and 
Literature,  a  subject  not  found  upon  the  curricula  of  the  other  fac- 
ulties of  letters,  excepting  Clermont-Ferrand,  which  is  considerably 
farther  away  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Italy.  The  facilities 
for  pursuing  science,  especially  geology  and  botany,  at  Grenoble  are 
very  fine.  The  summer  courses,  together  with  the  superb  natural 
attractions  of  Grenoble,  are  beginning  to  attract  thither  many  for- 
eign students.  Through  the  initiative  of  the  Alliance  Franfaise, 
now  making  a  vigorous  campaign  at  home  and  abroad  in  the  in- 
terest of  French  language  and  letters,  holiday  courses  are  now  given 
in  Bordeaux,  Boulogne-sur-Mer  (in  connection  with  the  University 
of  Lille),  Saint-Malo-Saint-Servan  (in  connection  with  the  Univer- 
sity of  Rennes),  and  Villerville-sur-Mer.  A  number  of  universities 
and  schools  in  France  and  Switzerland  have  joined  in  the  move- 
ment either  independently  or  in  connection  with  the  Alhance. 
Courses  are  announced  for  the  summer  season  of  1909  at  Besanfon, 
Caen,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lyon,  Nancy,  all  provincial  university 
centers,  at  Lisieux,  Bayeux  (both  in  Calvados,  Normandy),  at  the 
Institut-Moderne,  Marseilles,  and  at  the  Lycee  for  girls  in  Versailles 
under  the  direction  of  Mme.  Kahn;  also  at  the  universities  of 
Geneva,  and  Lausanne,  and  at  the  Academy  of  Neuchatel,  in 
Switzerland. 


364  APPENDIX  I 

The  University  of  Clermont-Ferrand,  in  the  capital  of  the  old 
province  of  Auvergne,  in  the  center  of  Southern  France,  like 
Grenoble,  is  in  the  midst  of  the  mountains.  Clermont  is  the  center 
of  a  most  important  volcanic  region  and  possesses  unique  interest 
not  only  for  geologists  and  mineralogists,  but  for  geographers  as 
well.  The  University  of  Dijon,  in  the  town  of  that  name,  capital 
of  the  old  province  of  Bourgogne,  offers  a  course  on  the  History 
of  Burgundy;  the  University  of  Poitiers,  in  the  old  province 
of  Poitou  in  Western  France,  where  famous  battles  occurred 
in  olden  times,  offers  a  course  on  the  History  of  Poitou;  the 
University  of  Rennes,  in  old  Bretagne,  offers  a  course  in  Celtic 
Language  and  Literature;  the  University  of  Besangon,  in  Franche- 
Comte,  of  which  Besanfon  was  the  capital,  a  course  in  Russian; 
also  one  on  the  History  and  Geography  of  Antiquity  and  the 
Middle  Ages,  in  which  epoch  Besanfon  played  an  interest- 
ing part. 

It  will  now  be  clear  that  while  the  provincial  universities  offer 
courses  in  law,  letters,  science,  and  medicine  quite  similar  to  those 
described  as  given  by  the  University  of  Paris,  they  make  up  in  a 
measure  for  what  they  lack  in  variety  by  offering  special  courses, 
for  which  they  have  advantages  superior  to  any  that  can  be  found 
elsewhere.  The  law-school  courses  are  in  many  cases  broadly  edu- 
cational as  well  as  technical.  The  scientific  courses  are  thoroughly 
practical,  as  the  names  of  some  of  them  suggest:  Industrial  Elec- 
tricity, Industrial  Chemistry,  Industrial  Physics.  The  medical 
schools  are  the  equal  in  excellence  of  the  schools  of  law,  letters,  and 
science.  The  provincial  universities,  following  the  example  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  are  gradually  introducing  the  doctor's  degree 
for  foreign  students  into  their  various  faculties.  An  American 
student  who  desires  to  receive  this  degree  as  a  recompense  for  suc- 
cessful work  in  France  will  have  in  the  future  only  the  perplexity 
of  deciding  where  he  can  most  advantageously  spend  his  time. 

VII.     Special  Schools  for  Higher  Education. 

It  remains  to  speak  of  several  institutions,  some  of  which  are 
not  connected  with  the  government,  of  no  less  interest  to  American 
students  than  those  just  described.  Many  of  these  are  termed 
"ecoleslibres,"/i6re  being  used  here  in  the  sense  of  independent,  and 
not,  as  sometimes  supposed,  of  jree  in  the  sense  of  tuition  free, 
although  such  is  often  the  case. 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES  IN  FRANCE    365 

First  in  importance  is  the  ColUge  de  France,  rue  des  Ecoles,  over 
the  portals  of  which  is  seen  the  inscription  Omnia  docet.  Here 
science  and  letters  in  their  most  advanced  stage  are  taught  by  more 
than  forty  of  the  ablest  specialists  in  France.  The  late  lamented 
Gaston  Paris  was  administrator  of  the  institution,  and  his  col- 
leagues in  their  specialties  are  well  known  to  scholars  making  re- 
searches in  like  fields  everywhere.  Some  of  the  French  professors 
whose  visits  to  America  or  whose  writings  have  made  their  names 
particularly  well  known  to  men  of  letters  in  this  country  are  Joseph 
Bedier,  Michel  Breal,  Gaston  Deschamps,  Louis  Havet,  Pierre 
Janet,  Leroy-Beaulieu,  E.  Levasseur  (who  succeeded  Gaston  Paris 
as  administrator  of  the  College  de  France),  A.  Longnon,  G.  Maspe- 
ro,  Paul  Meyer,  Morel-Fatio,  A.  Reville,  Georges  Blondel, 

Very  similar  in  its  aims  is  the  Ecole  pratique  des  hautes  etudes, 
Sorbonne.  Over  one  hundred  professors  have  charge  of  the  in- 
struction. The  school  is  divided  into  five  sections,  each  comprising 
broad  divisions:  1°  history,  language,  and  philology;  2°  mathe- 
matics and  mathematical  sciences;  3°  physics,  chemistry,  min- 
eralogy; 4°  natural  sciences;  5°  religious  sciences.  The  most  com- 
plete Uberty  in  regard  to  pursuing  one's  chosen  subject  exists.  The 
professor  meets  his  students  when  and  where  it  is  most  convenient, 
and  continues  his  work  with  them  for  as  long  or  short  a  time  as  may 
be  deemed  practicable.  Each  student  may  be  pursuing  some  one 
particular  part  of  a  subject,  in  which  case  the  student  and  professor 
come  together  by  appointment,  and  carry  on  the  special  research 
in  whatever  manner  they  may  consider  most  profitable.  No  ex- 
aminations are  given  nor  are  any  degrees  conferred.  Probably  no 
school  in  Europe  stands  higher  in  its  field  or  is  more  widely  and  fa- 
vorably known  than  the  Ecole  pratique  des  hautes  etudes. 

The  £,cole  des  langues  orientates  vivantes,  2  rue  de  Lille,  is,  per- 
haps, one  of  the  best  known  of  the  kind.  In  it  are  taught  the  lead- 
ing oriental  living  idioms.  The  professors  are  assisted  by  native 
teachers.  The  students  pursuing  the  courses  do  so  for  political, 
commercial,  or  philological  reasons.  Quite  a  number  obtain  po- 
sitions as  interpreters  in  eastern  countries. 

The  Ecole  nationale  des  chartes,  19  rue  de  la  Sorbonne,  founded 
over  eighty  years  ago,  is  frequented  by  speciaHsts  in  archeology, 
philology,  history,  and  diplomacy.  They  come  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  attracted  by  the  unrivaled  resources  of  the  school.  The  ad- 
vantages, particularly  for  the  study  of  paleography,  because  of  the 
abundance  of  rare  manuscripts,  are  unsurpassed. 


366  APPENDIX  I 

The  £,cole  libre  des  sciences  politiques,  27  rue  Saint-Guillaume, 
fulfills  a  most  useful  mission.  Here  an  excellent  preparation  can 
be  had  for  the  various  administrative  careers  in  the  government, 
in  conformity  with  the  five  sections  composing  the  entire  program: 
1°  interior  administration;  2°  finance;  3°  political  and  social 
economy;  4°  diplomacy;  5°  law  and  history.  There  are  no  ex- 
aminations to  enter.  A  course  can  be  taken  for  two  or  three 
years.  A  diploma  is  given  when  evidence  is  shown  of  good 
ability  to  investigate  problems.  There  is  an  enrollment  fee  of 
$14.00  a  year. 

Social  doctrines  may  be  profitably  pursued  at  the  College  libre 
des  sciences  sociales,  28  rue  Serpente.  Of  such  institutions  as  the 
Museum  d'histoire  naturelle,  57  rue  Cuvier,  where  courses  are  given 
in  zo5logy,  anthropology,  and  kindred  subjects;  the  Ecole  nationale 
superieure  des  mines,  60  boulevard  Saint-Michel,  for  the  training  of 
mining  engineers;  the  Eco^e^  des  ponts  et  chaussees,  292  rue  Saint- 
Martin,  for  bridge-builders  and  constructors;  the  Conservatoire  des 
arts  et  metiers,  292  rue  Saint-Martin,  for  sciences  and  their  indus- 
trial appUcation,  in  all  of  which  the  instruction  is  absolutely  free, 
nothing  need  be  said  other  than  that  they  represent  the  best  modern 
types  of  the  kind.  Such  schools  as  the  Ecole  nationale  et  speciale 
des  beaux-arts,  14  rue  Bonaparte,  for  the  study  of  painting,  sculp- 
ture, architecture,  and  allied  subjects,  and  the  Conservatoire  na- 
tionale de  musique  et  de  declamation,  15  rue  du  Faubourg-Poisson- 
niere,  for  vocal  and  instrumental  music  and  the  study  of  the  voice, 
will  long  continue  to  attract,  as  in  the  past,  foreigners  from  distant 
countries. 

It  is  perhaps  needless  to  say  that  the  mere  enumeration  of 
special  schools  that  offer  the  foreign  student  as  well  as  the  native  a 
most  attractive  program  of  studies,  either  entirely  free  or  at  a  nom- 
inal cost,  would  make  a  long  list.  It  must  here  suflfice  to  note  two 
well-defined  advantages  that  American  students  of  art  and  language 
may  profit  by,  if  disposed  to  make  use  of  them.  The  American  Art 
Association  has  over  two  hundred  members.  Its  function  is  that  of 
a  club.  It  gives  opportunity  for  American  students  and  artists  to 
meet  together  informally  and  enjoy  each  other's  society.  The  As- 
sociation now  possesses  fine  quarters  at  No.  2  Impasse  Conti.  A 
large  art  library,  fine  reading  rooms,  recreation-halls,  and  a  good 
but  inexpensive  restaurant  contribute  to  the  comfort  of  the  mem- 
bers. The  club  is  somewhat  like  the  St.  Botolph,  in  Boston,  in  that 
art  exhibitions  are  held  in  the  rooms  quite  frequently.     It  is  well 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES  IN  FRANCE      367 

worth  while  for  a  student  of  art,  intending  to  remain  a  year 
in  Paris,  to  become  a  member  immediately  upon  arriving.  The 
fees  are  ten  francs  initiation  and  twenty  francs  membership 
annually. 

The  second  advantage  is  that  offered  during  the  summer 
months  by  the  Alliance  Franqaise,  186  boulevard  Saint-Germain, 
to  students  of  the  French  language.  Two  series  of  courses  are  given, 
the  first  during  the  month  of  July,  and  the  second  during  the  month 
of  August.  Students  are  able  to  secure  diplomas  at  the  end  of  the 
course  after  an  examination  upon  it.  The  fee  for  either  course, 
which  embraces,  besides  a  large  amount  of  instruction,  lectures, 
etc.,  many  desirable  privileges,  is  twenty  dollars.  The  Alliance  has 
been  wonderfully  successful  in  Paris,  and  hundreds  of  students  and 
teachers  pursue  these  courses  yearly.  This  success  has  encouraged 
the  projectors  of  the  movement,  aided  by  the  government,  to  start 
a  similar  movement  in  the  nature  of  a  propaganda  outside  of 
France.  The  object  is  to  encourage  the  pursuit  of  the  French 
language  and  literature  and  to  attract  favorable  attention  to 
France.  Some  idea  of  how  successful  the  movement  has  been  in 
this  country  may  be  got  from  the  fact  that  at  the  present  time  there 
exist  here  and  in  Canada  more  than  two  hundred  Alliances  Fran- 
f  aises,  or  branches,  groups,  as  they  are  called,  of  the  central  organi- 
zation in  Paris.  Moreover,  some  of  these  groups  are  very  flourish- 
ing, the  one  in  Boston,  for  instance,  having  annually  for  several 
years  more  than  four  hundred  members.  This  group  in  particular 
has  been  very  ably  managed  by  Professor  de  Smnichrast  since 
taking  charge  of  its  interests  in  1900.  Lectures  and  entertain- 
ments in  French,  all  of  a  high  order,  are  given  fortnightly.  During 
the  years  1901,  1902,  and  1903,  the  Boston  group,  at  its  own  ex- 
pense, sent  over  to  Paris,  each  summer,  a  teacher  in  the  public 
schools  to  enjoy  the  advantages  offered  by  the  Alliance  in  Paris, 
It  is  well  to  be  familiar  with  the  work  of  the  Alliance  Franjaise 
when  preparing,  whether  here  or  abroad,  to  make  a  study  of  French 
life,  literature,  and  language.  In  this  way  it  is  quite  possible  to 
keep  abreast  of  what  is  going  on  in  a  rather  extensive  circle  of 
French  interests.  Both  Frenchmen  and  Americans  of  distinction 
are  connected  with  the  organization,  and  directly  or  indirectly 
may  be  of  signal  service  to  a  student.  Perhaps  the  simplest  way 
to  get  posted  quickly  is  to  send  for  the  Bulletin  officiel  de  la  Federa- 
tion de  I'AlHance  Franjaise  aux  Etats-Unis  et  au  Canada,  1402 
Broadway,  New  York  City. 


368  APPENDIX  I 

VIII.    L'Entente  Cordiale. 

It  is  beginning  to  be  quite  evident  that  the  day  is  past  when 
thoughts,  ideas,  and  the  possession  of  truth  are  national  and  the 
property  of  one  particular  people.  The  tendency  of  this  generation 
is  fast  towards  denationalization.  Foreign  methods  when  proved 
to  be  better  than  our  own  are  no  longer  looked  upon  askance 
because  they  are  foreign,  but  are  beginning  to  be  adopted;  just  as 
abroad  practical  American  ideas  have  found  widely  a  favorable 
reception.  The  intrinsic  value  of  ideas  is  an  asset  too  precious  to  be 
long  ignored  by  any  wide-awake  nation. 

In  1897,  Ferdinand  Brunetiere  gave  a  course  of  lectures  in 
French  at  Johns  Hopkins  University  which  were  notable  and  be- 
sides attracted  popular  attention.  He  was  invited  to  Harvard 
University,  where  he  gave  three  lectures  on  Moliere.  The  charm 
and  magnetism  of  the  man  will  not  easily  be  forgotten  by  anyone 
privileged  to  hear  him.  Since  that  time  the  French  lectureship 
fund  provided  by  Mr.  James  Hazen  Hyde  of  the  Class  of  1898  has 
made  it  possible  for  Americans  to  pass  in  review  a  long  line  of  dis- 
tinguished French  men  of  letters;  for  not  only  have  these  gentle- 
men lectured  at  Harvard  University,  but  after  finishing  their  course 
there,  usually  have  also  lectured  in  many  places  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  The  distinction  of  the  lecturers  and  the  variety 
of  the  topics  treated  has  naturally  called  attention  to  France,  a 
country  for  which  American  sympathy  has  been  strong  and  lasting 
from  old  colonial  days.  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  eminent 
lecturers  who  have  visited  our  shores  and  their  subjects: 

1898.  Rene  Doumic:  Histoire  du  romantisme  franfais. 

1899.  Edouard  Rod:  La  Poesie  dramatique  franjaise. 

1900.  Henri  de  Regnier:  Poesie  franfaise  contemporaine. 

190 1.  Gaston  Deschamps:  Le  Theatre  franjais  contem- 
porain. 

1902.  Hugues  Le  Roux:  Le  Roman  frangais  et  la  societe 
franfaise. 

1903.  L.  Mabilleau:  Idees  fondamentales  de  la  poHtique 
franfaise. 

1904.  A  Leroy-Beauheu,  de  ITnstitut:  Christianisme  et 
democratie. 

1905.  Rene  Millet,  ambassadeur:  La  France  et  I'lslam  dans 
la  Mediterranee. 

1906.  Anatole  Le  Braz:  La  France  celtique. 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES  IN  FRANCE    369 

1907.  Vicomte  G.  d'Avanel:  Histoire  economique  de  la 
France. 

1908.  Andre  Tardieu:  La  France  et  les  alliances. 

1909.  AbelLefranc:  Moliere. 

Nearly  all  of  these  men  have,  after  visiting  us,  recorded  their 
impressions  of  American  life  in  books  that  students  will  have  pleas- 
ure in  famiharizing  themselves  with.  This  is  likely  to  have  a 
broadening  effect  upon  their  own  point  of  view  of  a  foreign  country. 
Moreover,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Alliance  Franfaise,  or  pos- 
sibly, at  times,  independently,  Germain  Martin,  Jules  Huret, 
Andre  Michel,  F.  Funck-Bretano,  Louis  Madelin,  Edmond  Rossier, 
Bonet-Maury,  Marcel  Poete,  and  other  Frenchmen  of  note  have 
lectured  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Dis- 
tinguished Italians,  Angelo  de  Gubernatis,  Novelli,  Guglielmo 
Ferrero,  have  also  addressed  many  groups  of  the  Alliance. 

So  much  activity  on  this  side  of  the  water  has  initiated  a  recip- 
rocal movement  in  France.  In  1904— 1905,  through  the  generosity 
of  Mr.  Hyde,  who  has  done  so  much  to  promote  a  good  mutual 
understanding  between  France  and  America,  Professor  Barrett 
Wendell,  of  Harvard  University,  was  invited  to  deliver  a  course  of 
lectures  on  American  literature  at  the  Sorbonne  and  at  the  uni- 
versity towns  in  France.  Students  who  intend  studying  in  France 
will  do  well  to  profit  from  Professor  Wendell's  experience  by  reading 
his  book,  "The  France  of  Today."  He  was  followed  by  Professor 
A.  C.  Coohdge,  and  he  in  turn  by  Professor  George  Pierce  Baker, 
also  of  Harvard  University. 

Of  late  years  a  number  of  French  students  have  registered  in 
our  leading  universities,  and  not  only  pursued  courses,  but  given 
instructions  and  lectured  in  French  at  the  university  and  outside. 
This  idea  of  foreign  students  coming  here  to  study  in  our  institu- 
tions has  been  favorably  received  and  encouragement  is  offered 
them  to  come.  In  1896,  for  the  first  time,  a  fellow  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  Charles  Cestre,  was  sent  to  Harvard.  An  interesting 
contribution  by  him  on  the  French  Universities  will  be  found  in 
the  Harvard  Graduates'  Magazine  for  December,  1897.  About 
eight  years  later,  in  1903-1904,  a  fellowship  of  the  Cercle  Franf ais  de 
I'Universite  Harvard  with  a  stipend  of  $600  was  offered  by  Mr. 
Hyde  and  has  been  since  then  continued  annually.  The  French 
fellow  is  selected  by  the  Minister  of  public  instruction  in  France. 
According  to  the  conditions  of  the  fellowship,  the  young  French- 
man is  expected  to  give  a  certain  amount  of  assistance  to  the  depart- 


370  APPENDIX  I 

ment  of  French  and  other  Romance  languages.  He  is  also  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  any  courses  of  instruction  in  the  university  he  is  quahfied 
to  pursue.  These  young  men  occasionally  assist  in  the  annual  pro- 
duction of  the  Cercle  Franjais  play.  The  appointment  of  the 
American  exchange  fellow  to  Paris,  to  benefit  by  the  fellowship 
offered  in  return  by  the  French  ministry  of  pubhc  instruction,  is 
made  on  the  recommendation  of  the  president  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. The  incumbents  have  been  George  Wallace  Umphrey, 
1903-4;  Robert  Bell  Michel,  1904-5;  Charles  Marshall  Under- 
wood, 1905-6;  Arthur  Fisher  Whittem,  1906-7;  Warren  Barton 
Blake,  1907-8;  Samuel  Montefiore  Waxman,  1908-9.  The  same 
conditions  govern  the  incumbent  of  this  fellowship  as  those  of  the 
James  Hazen  Hyde  fellowship  offered  by  the  Cercle  Franfais. 
The  "boursiers,"  or  fellows  from  France  at  Harvard,  have  been  Rob- 
ert Dupouey,  1903-4;  to  whose  article,  Americans  in  French  Uni- 
versities, reference  has  here  twice  been  made;  Henri  Baulig, 
1904-5,  now  an  instructor  in  French  in  Harvard  College;  Mederic 
Tourneur,  1905-6;  Edmond  Jean  EggH,  1906-7;  Jean  Marie  Gi- 
raudoux,  1907-8;  Maurice  Chelli,  1908-9. 

About  fourteen  years  ago.  Baron  Pierre  de  Coubertin  made  four 
foundations  for  the  study  of  French  literature;  one  each  at  Prince- 
ton, Tulane,  the  University  of  California,  and  Leland  Stanford. 
By  way  of  reciprocity,  there  are  now  the  University  of  Paris: 
1°  The  due  de  Loubat's  foundation  at  the  College  de  France  for  the 
study  of  American  antiquities.  The  late  Leon  Lejeal  used  to 
lecture  in  this  course.  2°  Mr.  James  Hazen  Hyde's  foundation  at 
the  Sorbonne  for  the  study  of  America,  American  Ideas  and  Insti- 
tutions; lectures  in  English  by  the  American  exchange  lecturer. 
3°  The  proposed  foundation  by  some  American  bankers  and  finan- 
ciers at  the  law-school  of  the  University  for  the  study  of  the 
History  and  Outline  of  American  Law;  lectures  in  French,  in 
1904-5,  by  Charles  F,  Beach,  Jr.,  a  noted  American  lawyer  and 
student  of  economic  problems. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  best  known  of  all  the  foreign  traveling  fel- 
lowships is  the  Bourse  du  Tour  du  Monde,  founded  by  Albert  Kahn 
in  1898.  This  bequest  provides  for  sending  around  the  world 
"Cinq  jeunes  agreges  de  I'universite,"  each  on  a  fellowship  of 
$3,000.  An  account  of  experiences  in  foreign  countries  by  thirteen 
of  these  young  men  during  the  years  1898,  1899,  and  1900,  will  be 
found  in"Autour  dumonde,  par  les  Boursiersde  voyage  del'Univer- 
site  de  Paris"  (Paris,  Felix  Alcan,  1904).  The  bookis  useful  in  giving 


EDUCATIONAL  ADVANTAGES  IN  FRANCE    371 

the  American  student  who  studies  abroad  an  excellent  French  point 
of  view.  Occasionally  one  of  these  graduate  Frenchmen  remains 
in  a  foreign  country  some  years,  as  in  the  case  of  M.  Louis  AUard, 
who  taught  and  lectured  a  year  or  more  in  Laval  University,  Que- 
bec, and  for  the  past  two  years  has  been  one  of  the  regular  in- 
structors in  French  in  Harvard  College.  This  year  (1908)  a  young 
woman.  Mile.  Elichabe,  is  one  of  the  holders  of  the  Around  the 
World  Fellowship.  Her  lectures  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
have  been  noteworthy. 

A  few  of  the  largest  and  best-endowed  institutions  of  learning 
in  this  country,  such  as  those  already  named,  are  well  provided  with 
travehng  fellowships.  The  catalogs  of  a  number  of  our  colleges 
call  particular  attention  to  such  special  advantages;  at  Boston 
University,  for  instance,  the  Ada  Draper  fund  of  $25,000,  the  in- 
come of  which  is  to  be  applied  "  to  enable  the  most  meritorious  and 
needy  student  among  the  young  women  to  be  sent  to  Europe  after 
graduation  to  complete  her  studies."  In  this  way  students,  sure 
of  their  future,  are  able  to  concentrate  their  whole  time  and  thought 
on  the  main  object  of  their  foreign  residence. 

Thus,  from  what  has  been  shown,  the  signs  of  the  times  seem 
to  point  not  only  to  a  mutual  desire  on  the  part  of  France  and  of 
this  country  to  bind  more  cordially  together  the  old  intellectual  ties 
of  sympathy  that  were  so  strong  in  the  days  of  Franklin  and  Jeffer- 
son, but  to  a  common  world  understanding  that  shall  ultimately  do 
away  with  intellectual  barriers  between  nations.  That  a  movement 
so  thoroughly  in  accord  with  the  best  spirit  of  the  times  should  be 
fraught  with  success  is  the  earnest  hope  of  all  who  desire  the  moral 
and  intellectual  advancement,  not  only  of  France  and  America,  but 
of  all  civilized  nations. 


Appendix  II 


Appendix  IF 

Institutions  of  Higher  Learning; 

THEIR  Organization,  Degrees, 

Requirements,  Fees,  etc. 

Offices  Furnishing  Information  to  Foreign  Students.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the  University  of  Paris 
was  founded,  till  the  present  day,  France  has  always  generously 
extended  to  the  whole  world  the  hospitality  of  her  schools  of  higher 
learning.  This  hospitality  has  been  eagerly  accepted  in  modern  as 
well  as  in  mediaeval  times,  as  is  evidenced  by  an  enrollment  on 
January  15,  1913,  of556o  foreigners  in  the  Faculties  of  the  French 
Universities,  nearly  a  seventh  of  the  entire  student  body. 

In  order  to  emphasize  this  hospitality  and  render  it  concrete, 
the  French  educational  authorities  have  organized  two  offices  or 
bureaus  whose  business  it  is  to  facilitate  in  every  possible  way  the 
pursuit  of  studies  in  France  and  to  render  any  service  possible  to 
the  prospective  or  resident  foreign  student.  These  offices  are: 
Bureau  des  Renseignements,  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  Office  National  des 
Universites  et  Ecoles  Franqaises,  96  Boulevard  Raspail,  Paris. 
The  Bureau  of  Information  pubHshes  annually  the  "Livret  de 
I'Etudiant"  of  the  University  of  Paris,  which  also  contains  a 
complete  detailed  account  of  all  the  other  institutions  of  higher 
learning  in  the  capital.  The  National  Office  of  French  Universities 
and  Schools  publishes  a  Handbook  which  presents  in  schematic 
outline  a  description  of  the  organization,  conditions  of  admission, 
etc.,  of  all  the  higher  schools,  not  only  in  Paris,  but  also  in  the 
provinces.  The  information  contained  in  the  following  pages  has 
been  reproduced  for  the  most  part  from  these  two  booklets,  which 
should  be  consulted  for  further  details.  Each  University  also 
pubHshes  a  "Livret  de  I'Etudiant"  or  "Annuaire"  which  gives  an 
even  more  detailed  account  of  the  particular  University  and  of  all 

^[Prepared  by  Professor  C.  B.  Vibbert,  of  the  University  of  Michigan. — 
Ed.) 

375 


376  APPENDIX  II 

the   higher   schools   in   the   administrative   educational    district 
(Academic)  in  which  the  University  is  located.^ 

Each  University  has  also  established  a  committee  which  seeks 
to  promote  in  every  possible  way  the  interests  of  foreign  students 
("Comite  de  Patronage  des  etudiants  etrangers").  The  student 
is  strongly  advised  to  supplement  the  necessarily  limited  informa- 
tion contained  in  the  following  pages  by  consulting  these  various 
handbooks,  and,  in  case  of  doubt  on  any  point,  to  apply  directly 
to  one  of  the  two  bureaux  of  information  indicated  above,  or  to  the 
Deans  of  the  various  Faculties  or  the  Directors  of  the  various 
Schools,  or  to  the  several  Committees  of  Patronage. 

The  educational  data  to  be  described  for  the  intending  American 
student  in  France  can  best  be  grouped  under  the  following  headings: 

I.    Organization  of  the  Various  Institutions  of  Higher  Learning: 

1.  The  Universities. 

2.  Other  Institutions. 

^  For  further  information  upon  the  Universities  of  France,  and  upon  the 
educational  system,  consult  the  works  in  the  following  list,  prepared  by  Pro- 
fessor RoLLO  W.  Brown,  of  Wabash  College,  at  the  request  of  the  Editor  of 
this  volume: 

E.  Deialain:  "Annuaire  de  I'lnstruction  publique."  (Librairie  Delalain 
Freres,  Paris.)  This  volume  not  only  serves  as  a  directory  of  the  French 
universities,  but  provides  a  convenient  view  of  the  entire  scheme  of  French 
education. 

L.  Liard:  "  L 'Enseignement  superieur  en  France."  (Armand  Colin, 
Paris.  Two  volumes.)  A  very  complete  and  a  thoroughly  sound  historical 
study  of  French  higher  education,  by  the  head  of  the  University  of  Paris. 

H.  Vuibert:  "Annuaire  de  la  Jeunesse."  (Librairie  Vuibert,  Paris.) 
This  volume  is  indispensable  to  the  American  student  who  wishes  to  be  informed 
on  French  educational  organization.  Ordinarily  it  contains  more  than  a 
thousand  pages  of  well-indexed  material. 

Few  books  have  been  written  in  English  on  French  education,  and  most  of 
these  have  dealt  chiefly  with  the  primary  (utilitarian)  or  secondary  schools. 
The  following  volumes  will  help  the  student  to  form  a  notion  of  some  aspects 
of  French  educational  methods  and  spirit: 

English  Board  of  Education:  "  Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects." 
(Wyman  and  Sons,  London.)  Volumes  2,  18,  and  24.  Volume  2  is  devoted  in 
part  to  French  universities;  volume  18  discusses  the  primary  schools;  and 
volume  24  deals  exclusively  with  the  secondary  schools. 

Frederic  Ernest  Farringlon:  "The  Public  Primary  Schools  of  France." 
(Columbia  University  Press.)  Same  Author:  "French  Secondary  Schools." 
(Longmans,  Green  and  Company.)  These  two  books  give  a  complete  account 
of  French  education  below  the  university. 

A.  L.  Giierard:     "French  Civilization  in  the  Nineteenth  Century."    (Cen- 
tury Company.)    Chapter  VII  gives  a  brief  historical  view  of  French  education. 
Rollo  Waller  Brown:   "How  the  French  Boy  Learns  to  Write."   A  study  in 
the  teaching  of  the  mother  tongue.     This  volume  acquaints  the  student  with 
present-day  French  methods  of  teaching  language  and  literature. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  377 

II.    Degrees,  Diplomas,  and  Certificates  for  work  done  in  the 
Universities. 

III.  Admission  to  the  Universities. 

IV.  Credit  allowable  for  Equivalent  Degrees  in  Foreign  In- 
stitutions. 


I.    Organization  of  the  Various  Institutions  of 
Higher  Learning 

Classes  oj  Institutions.  All  institutions  of  higher  learning  in 
France  may  be  divided  into  three  great  groups,  based  on  the  general 
principles  of  their  inner  organization: 

I.  The  National  Universities,  under  the  general  administra- 
tion of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  which  prepare  for  and 
confer  the  main  degrees  required  in  France  for  the  practice  of  the 
learned  professions; 

II.  (i)  Other  National  Schools,  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  or  other  ministries  and  administra- 
tions, which  are  either  devoted  primarily  to  pure  research  or  pre- 
pare for  the  various  lines  of  specialization  in  the  government 
services; 

(2)  Independent  Institutions,  established  through  private  initia- 
tive and  supported  by  private  gifts  and  endowments;  the  scope 
and  variety  of  the  activities  of  these  independent  schools  is  almost 
unlimited. 

I.    The  Universities. 

There  are  sixteen  French  Universities,  scattered  throughout 
France,  each  having  its  seat  in  the  city  which  is  at  the  same  time 
the  official  center  of  an  "Academie."  These  "Academies"  are 
administrative  districts,  into  which  are  grouped,  for  the  organiza- 
tion and  direction  of  education,  several  "  departements  "  under  the 
direction  of  a  "Recteur." 

The  sixteen  French  Universities  are,  besides  Paris,  the  Univer- 
sities of  Aix-Marseille,  Alger,  Besanqon,  Bordeaux,  Caen,  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Poitiers, 
Rennes,  Toulouse. 

These  Universities  have  for  the  most  part  had  a  long  and 
glorious  past;  some  of  them,  as  the  Universities  of  Paris  and  Mont- 
peUier,  are  among  the  oldest  in  the  world.    On  the  other  hand,  the 


378  APPENDIX  II 

actual  organization  of  the  Universities  as  it  exists  today  is  very 
recent.  It  dates  from  a  law  of  July  lo,  1896,  which,  grouping 
together  the  various  isolated  and  independent  Faculties  and  Schools 
existing  at  the  seats  of  the  various  administrative  educational 
districts,  organized  them  into  Universities. 

The  work  of  the  Universities  is  comprised  under  the  four  Facul- 
ties of  Law,  Medicine,  Sciences,  and  Letters,  and  the  Higher  School 
of  Pharmacy.  However,  not  every  University  possesses  all  of 
these  five  establishments.  But,  in  whatever  University  they  are 
found,  the  Faculties  or  Schools  are  of  the  same  type  and  offer 
essentially  the  same  hues  of  instruction. 

The  "Facultes  de  Medecine"  and  the  "Ecoles  superieures  de 
Pharmacie"  provide  complete  instruction  for  the  degrees  of  doctor 
of  medicine  and  registered  pharmacist,  and  also  offer  full  opportu- 
nities for  research  along  these  lines.  In  some  of  the  Universities 
the  work  along  these  two  lines  is  combined  into  one  school,  the 
so-called  "Facultes  mixtes  de  Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie"  and  the 
"Ecoles  de  plein  exercice  de  Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie."  Other 
Universities  offer  only  the  first  three  years  of  studies  out  of  the 
five  required  for  the  ofl&cial  degrees  in  medicine  and  pharmacy,  in 
the  so-called  "Ecoles  preparatoires  de  Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie." 

The  "Facultes  de  Droit"  are  devoted  not  only  to  research  and 
instruction  in  the  legal  sciences,  but  also  in  the  economic  sciences, 
such  as  political  economy,  finance,  administration,  etc. 

The  "Facultes  des  Sciences,"  especially  devoted  to  the  mathe- 
matical, physical  and  biological  sciences,  offer  instruction  and 
research  in  both  pure  and  applied  science. 

Finally,  the  "Facultes  des  Lettres"  give  full  instruction  and 
oft'er  opportunities  for  research  in  philosophy,  languages,  philology, 
history,  geography,  pedagogy,  etc.  A  certain  number  have  also 
organized  for  the  benefit  of  foreigners  special  courses  in  French 
literature,  philology,  and  phonetics,  which  are  given  either  during 
the  regular  school  year  or  during  the  summer  vacation. 

"InstUuts"  and  ^'£coles."  In  a  number  of  Universities  the 
courses  already  offered,  or  the  laboratory  work  already  carried  on 
has  been  specially  organized  and  co-ordinated  with  reference  to  the 
achievement  of  certain  special  ends  in  pure  science  or  in  the  applica- 
tion of  knowledge  to  special  technical  or  practical  purposes.  The 
courses  so  organized  constitute  the  various  "Instituts"  and 
"Ecoles,"  attached  to  the  various  Faculties  to  which  they  are 
related.    The  Universities  in  which   they  are  organized  grant 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC. 


379 


various  degrees  and  diplomas  in  recognition  of  the  work  success- 
fully completed  in  these  special  schools. 

In  order  to  present  a  synoptic  picture  of  the  various  Faculties, 
Institutes  and  Schools  which  are  comprised  in  each  University 
today,  we  have  given  below  a  list  which  is  reproduced  from  the 
Handbook  of  the  Office  National  des  Universites: 


Universite  de  Paris. 
Faculte  de  Droit. 
Faculte  de  Medecine. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 
Faculte  des  Lettres. 
Ecole  superieure  de 

Pharmacie. 
Ecole  normale  superieure. 
Institut  de  Chimie 

appliquee. 
Institut  aerotechnique. 
Institut  de  Medecine 

coloniale. 
Institut  de  Medecine  legale 

et  de  Psychiatric. 
Universite  d'Aix-Marseille. 
Faculte  de  Droit  (a  Aix). 
Faculte  des  Sciences 

(a  Marseille). 
Faculte  des  Lettres  (a  Aix). 
Ecole  de  plein  exercise  de 

Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie 

(a  Marseille). 
Universite  d'Alger. 
Faculte  de  Droit. 
Faculte  mixte  de  Medecine 

et  de  Pharmacie. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 
Faculte  des  Lettres. 
Universite  de  Besanjon. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 
Faculte  des  Lettres. 
ficole  preparatoire  de 

Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie. 


Cours  speciaux  de  franjais 
pour  les  etrangers  (Cours 
annuels  et  Cours  de 
vacances). 
Universite  de  Bordeaux. 

Faculte  de  Droit. 

Faculte  mixte  de  Medecine 
et  de  Pharmacie. 

Faculte  des  Sciences. 

Faculte  des  Lettres. 

Ecole  des  hautes  etudes 
hispaniques  de  I'lnstitut 
franfais  de  Madrid 
(Espagne). 

Institut  colonial. 

Ecole  de  Chimie  appliquee  a 
I'industrie  et  a 
I'agriculture. 

Institut  pratique  de  Droit. 

Cours  speciaux  de  franfais 
pour  les  etrangers  (Cours 
annuels  et  Cours  de 
vacances). 
Universite  de  Caen. 

Faculte  de  Droit. 

Faculte  des  Sciences. 

Faculte  des  Lettres. 

Ecole  preparatoire  de 

Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie. 

CouiB  speciaux  de  frangais 
pour  les  etrangers. 
Universite  de  Clermont- 
Ferrand. 

Faculte  des  Sciences. 


38o 


APPENDIX  II 


Faculte  des  Lettres. 
Ecole  preparatoire  de 

Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie. 
Universite  de  Dijon. 
Faculte  de  Droit. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 
Faculte  des  Lettres. 
£cole  preparatoire  de 

Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie. 
Institut  pratique  de  droit. 
Institut  cenologique  et 

agronomique. 
Cours  speciaux  de  franfais 

pour  les  etrangers  (Cours 

annuels  et  Cours  de 

vacances). 
Universite  de  Grenoble. 
Faculte  de  Droit. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 
Faculte  des  Lettres. 
Ecole  preparatoire  de 

Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie. 
Institut  franfais  de  Florence 

(Italic). 
Institut  polytechnique 

(Institut  electrotechnique 

et  Ecole  de  Papeterie). 
Institut  des  Sciences 

commerciales. 
Institut  de  Phonetique. 
Institut  de  Geographic 

alpine. 
Cours  speciaux  de  frangais 

pour  les  etrangers  (Cours 

annuels  et  Cours  de 

vacances). 
Universite  de  Lille. 
Faculte  de  Droit. 
Faculte  mixta  de  Medecine 

et  de  Pharmacie. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 


Faculte  des  Lettres. 
Institut  frangais  de  Londres 

(Angleterre). 
Institut  pratique  de  Droit. 
Institut  electrotechnique. 
Institut  de  Chimie. 
Institut  des  Sciences 

naturelles. 
Institut  pedagogique. 
Cours   speciaux   de   franjais 

pour  les  etrangers  (Cours 

annuels  a  Lille. —  Cours  de 

vacances   a   Boulogne-sur- 

Mer). 
Universite  de  Lyon. 
Faculte  de  Droit. 
Faculte  mixte  de  Medecine 

et  de  Pharmacie. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 
Faculte  des  Lettres. 
Ecole  franfaise  de  Droit  de 

Beyrouth  (Syrie). 
Ecole  franfaise  d'Ingenieurs 

de  Beyrouth  (Syrie). 
Institut  des  Sciences 

economiques  et  politiques. 
Institut  bacteriologique. 
Institut  d'Hygiene. 
Ecole  de  Chimie  industrielle. 
Ecole  de  Tannerie. 
Institut  agronomique. 
Cours  speciaux  de  frangais 

pour  les  etrangers  (Cours 

annuels  et  Cours  de 

vacances). 
College  oriental. 
Universite  de  Montpellier. 
Faculte  de  Droit. 
Faculte  de  Medecine. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 
Faculte  des  Lettres. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC. 


381 


ficole  superieure  de 

Pharmacie. 
Institut  de  Botanique. 
Institut  de  Chimie. 
Cours  speciaux  de  franjais 

pour  las  etrangers  (Cours 

annuels). 
Universite  de  Nancy 
Faculte  de  Droit. 
Faculte  de  Medecine. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 
Faculte  des  Lettres. 
Ecole  superieure  de 

Pharmacie. 
Institut  electrotechnique  et 

de  Mecanique  appliquee. 
Institut  chimique. 
Institut  de  Geologie. 
Ecole  de  Brasserie  et  de 

Malterie. 
Institut  agricole. 
Institut  commercial. 
Institut  colonial. 
Institut  dentaire. 
Ecole  de  Laiterie. 
Cours  speciaux  de  franf ais 

pour  les  etrangers  (Cours 

annuels  et  Cours  de 

vacances). 
Universite  de  Poitiers. 
Faculte  de  Droit. 
Faculte  des  Sciences. 
Faculte  des  Lettres. 


Ecole  preparatoire  de 

Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie. 

Institut  pratique  de  Droit. 

Cours  speciaux  de  franjais 
pour  les  etrangers  (Cours 
annuels  a  Poitiers  et  a 
Tours,  Cours  de  vacances 
a  Tours). 
Universite  de  Rennes. 

Faculte  de  Droit. 

Faculte  des  Sciences. 

Faculte  des  Lettres. 

Ecole  de  plein  exercise  de 
Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie. 

Cours    speciaux    de    franjais 

pour  les  etrangers  (Cours 

annuels  a  Rennes.     Cours 

de  vacances  a  Saint-Malo). 

Universite  de  Toulouse. 

Faculte  de  Droit. 

Faculte  mixte  de  Medecine 
et  de  Pharmacie, 

Faculte  des  Sciences. 

Faculte  des  Lettres. 

Institut  electrotechnique. 

Institut  de  Chimie. 

Institut  agricole. 

Union  des  etudiants  franfais 
et  espagnols  de  ITnstitut 
franfais  de  Madrid 
(Espagne). 

Institut  d'Hydrologie. 

Ecole  pratique  de  Droit. 


Methods  of  Instruction.  In  all  the  Faculties  and  Schools,  instruc- 
tion is  given,  in  the  first  place,  by  means  of  "  cours  publics,"  the  spe- 
cial purpose  of  which  is  to  set  forth,  in  treating  the  more  general 
aspects  of  the  problems,  the  actual  state  and  results  of  the  main 
lines  of  human  knowledge.  Courses  with  a  like  purpose  ("cours 
libres")  may  be  offered,  on  proper  authorization,  by  scholars  who 
do  not  belong  to  the  regular  teaching  staff  of  the  Universities. 


382  APPENDIX  II 

A  more  technical  and  intensive  instruction  is  given  in  the 
"cours  reserves,"  open  only  to  regularly  matriculated  and  enrolled 
students.  These  courses  are  supplemented  by  discussion  periods, 
seminaries,  and  laboratory  work.  These  latter  are  the  most 
important  factors  in  developing  the  student  and  training  him  in 
scholarly  methods. 

Finally,  the  Universities  place  at  the  disposition  of  the  students 
libraries,  museums,  and  special  collections. 

Academic  Year.  Vacations  and  Holidays.  The  academic  year 
begins  the  first  of  November  and  extends  to  the  end  of  July. 
However,  because  of  the  examinations,  which  occupy  nearly  the 
entire  month  of  July,  the  courses  come  to  an  end  in  June.  Con- 
sequently, no  instruction  is  offered  during  the  months  of  July, 
August,  September  and  October,  except  in  the  special  courses 
organized  in  some  of  the  Universities  in  French  literature,  philology, 
language,  etc.,  for  the  convenience  of  foreigners. 

Aside  from  the  summer  vacation,  all  courses  are  discontinued 
on  legal  hohdays,  during  the  Christmas  holidays  (from  December 
24  to  January  2)  and  during  the  Easter  hohdays  (fifteen  days). 

Administration.  Each  University  is  administered  by  a  "Con- 
seil,"  composed  of  representatives  of  each  Faculty  or  School  and 
of  the  "Recteur  de  lAcademie,"  who  is,  de  jure,  president  of  the 
Council  of  the  University.  In  the  University  of  Paris,  however,  the 
administrative  head  has  the  title  of  "  Vice-Recteur,"  the  Minister 
of  Public  Instruction  being  "Recteur"  ex  officio. 

Each  Faculty  or  School  is  administered  by  a  Dean  or  by  a 
Director,  elected  by  his  colleagues,  and  appointed  for  three  years 
by  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 

Each  Faculty  or  School  possesses  a  Secretary's  office,  to  which 
the  student  should  apply  in  fulfilling  all  the  formalities  relative  to 
admission,  required  courses,  examinations,  etc. 

11.    Other  Institutions  of  Higher  Education. 

The  institutions  of  higher  learning  independent  of  the  Uni- 
versities naturally  divide  into  two  great  classes:  (i)  Official  institu- 
tions under  the  direct  administration  of  the  State;  (2)  Independent 
institutions  due  to  private  initiative  and  funds. 

Their  organization  is  as  different  as  their  aims.  Some  are 
devoted  primarily  to  research  and  to  the  presentation  of  the  results 


PARIS.     THE  MEDICAL  SCHOOL.     ECOLE  PRATIQUE 


Px\RIS.     THE  MEDICAL  SCHOOL.     ANATOMICAL  BUILDINGS 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  383 

of  research;  others  aim  at  giving  technical  instruction  in  some 
particular  branch  of  learning.  Each  institution  has  its  own  courses 
of  studies,  its  special  conditions  of  admission,  etc. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  treat  of  each  of  these  institu- 
tions; they  number  more  than  a  hundred.  For  the  purposes  of  this 
Appendix  it  will  be  sufl&cient  to  call  attention  to  some  of  the  main 
differences  in  the  conditions  of  admission,  to  give  a  list  of  the  differ- 
ent institutions,  and  then  to  single  out  a  few  of  the  more  prominent 
ones  which  may  be  of  special  interest  to  American  students.  For 
complete  information  with  reference  to  any  of  these  schools,  the 
student  is  recommended  to  consult  either  the  Handbook  of  the 
Office  National  des  Universites  or  the  "Livrets  de  I'Etudiant," 
issued  by  the  various  Universities,  which  usually  contain  a  de- 
scription of  all  the  institutions  of  higher  learning  within  the 
administrative  educational  district  ("Academie")  of  which  the 
University  is  the  center. 

Foreign  students  can  usually  gain  admission  to  practically 
every  one  of  these  higher  institutions,  if  not  directly  by  presenting 
their  diplomas  and  certificates,  then  through  the  representations  of 
their  Ambassador  or  Minister  before  the  proper  French  authorities. 
Even  though  they  may  not  be  admitted  as  regular  candidates 
for  the  diploma,  conferred  by  the  school,  they  can  usually  attend 
in  the  capacity  of  visitors.  In  case  a  student  is  interested  in  the 
work  of  some  special  school,  he  should  not  renounce  his  intent  to 
enter  till  he  has  received  a  refusal  through  his  embassy. 

Admission  to  some  of  these  establishments,  as  the  College  de 
France,  the  Museum  d'histoire  naturelle,  etc.,  is  free  of  charge  and 
without  scholastic  requirement.  Admission  to  others,  as  the 
£cole  polytechnique,  Ecole  des  mines,  Ecole  centrale,  is  gained 
only  on  the  basis  of  competitive  examinations. 

The  following  Hst  of  institutions  of  higher  education,  which 
includes  the  various  Instituts  and  Ecoles  attached  to  the  Faculties 
of  the  different  Universities,  is  reproduced  from  the  Handbook  of 
the  Office  National  des  Universites  et  Ecoles  Franfaises.  The 
institutions  are  grouped  under  the  heading  of  the  branch  of  study 
to  which  they  are  primarily  devoted. 

Etablissements  scientifiques  et  de  Hautes  Etudes 

College  de  France,  a  Paris,  place  Marcellin-BertheloL 
Museum  d'Histoire  naturelle,  a  Paris,  57,  rue  Cuvier. 
Ecole  pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes,  a  Paris,  a  la  Sorbonne. 


384  APPENDIX  II 

Ecole  Nationale  des  Charles,  a  Paris,  a  la  Sorbonne. 

Ecole  speciale  des  Langues  orientates  vivafttes,  a  Paris,  2,  rue  de 

Lille. 
Ecole  du  Louvre,  a  Paris,  au  Palais  du  Louvre. 
Institut  Pasteur,  a  Paris,  26,  rue  Dutot. 
Institut  Pasteur  de  Lille. 
Institut  Oceanographique,  a  Paris,  iqj,  rue  Saint- Jacques. 

Enseignement  des  Sciences  juridiques,  economiques, 
politiques  es  sociales 

Ecole   litre   des    Sciences    politiques,   a    Paris,    27,    rue   Saint- 

Guillaume. 
Institut  des  Sciences  economiques  et  politiques  de  I'Universite  de 

Lyon. 
Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  sociales,  a  Paris,  16,  rue  de  la  Sorbonne. 
College  litre  des  Sciences  sociales,  a  Paris,  28,  rue  Serpente. 
Faculte  litre  de  Droit  de  Vlnstitut  catholique  de  Paris,  74,  rue  de 

Vaugirard. 
Facultes  litres  de  Droit,  a  Angers,  Lille,  Lyon  et  Marseille. 
Ecole  litre  de  Droit  de  Nantes. 

Ecole  de  Legislation  projessionnelle,  a  Paris,  16,  rue  de  VAtbaye. 
Instituts  pratiques  de  Droit  des  Universites  de  Bordeaux,  Dijon, 

Lille,  Poitiers  et  Toulouse. 
Ecole  de  Notariat,  a  Paris,  127,  rue  Notre-Dame-des-Champs. 
Ecoles  de  Notariat,  a  Angers,  Bordeaux,  Dijon,  Limoges,  Lyon, 

Nantes,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  Rouen  et  Toulouse. 

Enseignement  de  la  Medecine  et  des  Sciences  annexes 

Ecole  de  plein  exercice  de  Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie  de  Nantes. 
Ecoles   preparatoires  de  Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie,   a  Amiens, 

Angers,  Limoges,  Rennes,  Rouen  et  Tours. 
Faculte  litre  de  Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie,  a  Lille. 
Institut  de  Medecine  legale  et  de  Psychiatric  de  rUniversite  de 

Paris. 
Institut  de  Medecine  coloniale  de  rUniversite  de  Paris. 
Institut  d'Hygiene  de  TUniversite  de  Lyon. 
Institut  d'Hygime-de  TUniversite  de  Toulouse. 
Institut  Pasteur,  a  Paris,  26,  rue  Dutot. 
Institut  Pasteur  de  Lille. 

£^cole  d'Anthropologie,  a  Paris,  75,  rue  de  l' ^cole-dc-M edecine. 
Institut  general  psychologique,  a  Paris,  14,  rue  de  Conde. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  385 

Institut    psycho-physiologique,   a    Paris,    4q,    rue    Saint-Andre- 

des-Arts. 
Ecole  Jranqaise  d'Odontologie,  a  Paris,  206,  boulevard  Raspail. 
Ecole  jranqaise  de  Stomatologie,  a  Paris,  24,  passage  Dauphine. 
Institut  dentaire  de  TUniversite  de  Nancy. 
Ecole  Odontotechnique,  a  Paris,  5,  rue  Garanciere. 
Ecole  dentaire  de  Paris,  45,  rue  de  la  Tour-d' Auvergne. 
Ecole  dentaire  Jranqaise,  a  Paris,  2p,  boulevard  Saint-Martin. 
Ecoles  dentaires,  a  Bordeaux  et  a  Lyon. 

Enseignement  des  Lettres 

Faculte  libre  des  Lettres  de  VInstitut  catholique,  a  Paris,  ^4,  rue  de 

Vaugirard. 
Facultes  libres  des  Lettres,  a  Angers,  Lille,  Lyon  et  Toulouse. 

Enseignement  des  Sciences 

Ecole  libre  des  Hautes  Etudes  scientifiques ,  a  Paris,  74,  rue  de 

Vaugirard. 
Facultes  libres  des  Sciences,  a  Angers,  Lille,  Lyon  et  Toulouse. 

Enseignement  de  la  Theologie 

Faculte  libre  de  Theologie  de  VInstitut  catholique  de  Paris,  74,  rue  de 

Vaugirard. 
Facultes  libres  de  Theologie  catholique  d'ANGERS,  Lille,  Lyon  et 

Toulouse. 
Faculte    libre    de    Droit    canonique    de    VInstitut    catholique    de 

Paris. 
Faculte  libre  de   Theologie   protestante   de   Paris,   5j,   boulevard 

Arago. 
Faculte  libre  de  Theologie  protestante  de  Montauban. 

Enseignement  du  Fran^ais  pour  les  etrangers 

Cours  speciaux  annuels  des  Universites  de  Besan^on,  Bordeaux, 
Caen,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier, 
Nancy,  Poitiers,  Rennes  et  Toulouse,  de  VInstitut  d'Etudes 
franqaises  de  Touraine,  a  Tours,  et  de  la  Guilde  inter nationale, 
a  Paris,  6,  rue  de  la  Sorbonne. 

Cours  de  vacances  des  Universites  de  Besan^on,  Bordeaux,  Dijon, 
Grenoble,  Lille  (a  Boulogne-sur  Mer),  Lyon,  Nancy,  Rennes 
(a  Saint-Malo),  Toulouse,  et  de  VInstitut  d'Etudes  franqaises 
de  Touraine,  a  Tours. 


386  APPENDIX  II 

Coiirs  de  vacances  de  V Alliance  franqaise,  a  Paris,  i86,  boulevard 
Samt-Germain,  et  de  la  Guilde  internationale. 

Ecoles  preparatoires  a  renseignement 

£,cole  Normale  superieure,  a  Paris,  45,  rue  d^Ulm. 

Ecole  Normale  superieure  d'Enseignement  secondaire  des  jeunes 
filles,  a  S:&VRES  (Seine-et-Oise). 

Ecole  Normale  superieure  de  V Enseignement  technique,  a  Paris, 
157,  boulevard  de  VHopital. 

Ecole  Normale  superieure  d'Instituteurs,  a  Saint-Cloud  (Seine-et- 
Oise). 

Nicole  Normale  superieure  d'Institutrices,  a  Fontenay-aux-Roses. 

£,coles  Normales  primaires  d^Instituteurs  et  d'Institutrices. 

Ecoles  Militaires 

Ecole  Superieure  de  Guerre,  a   Paris,  jj,  avenue  de  la   Motte- 

Picquet. 
Ecole  Poly  technique,  a  Paris,  21,  rue  Descartes. 
Ecole  speciale  militaire,  a  Saint-Cyr  (Seine-et-Oise). 
Ecole  du  Service  de  Sante  militaire,  a  Lyon. 
Ecole  du  Service  de  Sante  militaire,  a  Paris,  au  Val-de-Grdce,  277,  rue 

Saint- Jacques. 
£cole  du  Service  des  Poudres  et  Salpetres,  a  Paris,  12,  boulevard 

Henri-IV.  f-     ,       1    1     iv/r     • 

Ecoles  de  la  Marine 

^cole  Superieure  de  la  Marine,  a  Paris,  ij,  rue  de  VUniversite. 

£cole  d  Application  du  Genie  maritime,  a  Paris,  140,  boulevard 
du  Montparnasse. 

Ecole  Navale,  a  Brest. 

£,cole  du  Service  de  sante  de  la  Marine,  a  Bordeaux. 

Ecole  annexe  de  Medecine  navale,  a  Brest. 

Ecole  du  Commissariat  de  la  Marine,  a  Brest. 

Ecoles  des  Mecaniciens  des  equipages  de  la  flotte,  a  Brest. 

Ecoles  d'Hydrographie,  a  Alger,  Bordeaux,  Boulogne,  Mar- 
seille, Nantes,  Brest,  Bastia,  Dunkerque,  Lorient, 
Toulon,  Le  Havre,  Saint-Brieuc,  Agde,  Granville,  Paim- 
POL,  Saint-Malo  et  Saint-Tropez. 

£,coles  d'' Enseignement  professionnel  et  technique  des  peches  mari- 
times,  a  Boulogne-sur-Mer,  Dieppe,  Calais,  Arcachon, 
CoNCARNEAU,  Le  Croisic,  Fecamp,  Croix,  Les  Sables- 
d'Olonne,  Saint- Vaast-la-Hougue. 


PARIS.     THE  MEDICAL  SCHOOL.  FACADE 


=*    'm 


*^'''  -if '^ip 


w  :.?*e!'  — ^i 


PARIS.     THE  MEDICAL  SCHOOL.     READING  ROOM 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  387 

Enseignement  agricole 

Institut  National  agronomique,  a  Paris,  16,  rue  Claude-Bernard. 

Ecole  Nationale  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  a  Nancy. 

Ecoles    Nationales    d' Agriculture,    a    Grignon     (Seine-et-Oise). 

MONTPELLIER  et  ReNNES. 

Institut  agronomique  de  rUniversite  de  Lyon. 

Institut  agricole  de  TUniversite  de  Nancy. 

Institut  agricole  de  I'Universite  de  Toulouse. 

Institut  agricole  de  Beauvais  (Oise). 

Ecole  Nationale  superieure  d^ Agriculture  coloniale,  a  Nogent-sur- 
Marne. 

Ecole  Superieure  d^ Agriculture  d'ANGERS. 

Ecole  Nationale  d' Horticulture  de  Versailles. 

Ecole  Nationale  d' horticulture  et  de  Vannerie  de  Fayl-Billot 
(Haute-Marne). 

Ecole  Nationale  des  Industries  agricoles  de  Douai. 

Scales  Nationales  de  VIndustrie  laitiere,  a  Mamirolle  (Doubs)  et 
a  Poligny  (Jura), 

Ecole  de  Laiterie  de  I'Universite  de  Nancy. 

Ecole  de  Brasserie  et  de  Malterie  de  I'Universite  de  Nancy. 

Institut  osnologique  de  I'Universite  de  Dijon. 

Ecoles  Nationales  veterinaires,  a  Alfort  (Seine),  Lyon  et  Tou- 
louse. 

Ecole  des  Haras,  au  Pin-au-Haras  (Orne). 

Enseignements  concernant  les  Colomes 

Ecole  Coloniale,  a  Paris,  2,  avenue  de  VOhservatoire. 

Institut  Colonial  de  I'Universite  de  Bordeaux. 

Institut  Colonial  de  I'Universite  de  Nancy. 

Institut  de  Medecine  coloniale  de  I'Universite  de  Paris. 

Cours  de  Medecine  coloniale  de  VEcole  de  Medecine  de  Marseille. 

Ecole  Nationale  superieure  d' Agriculture  coloniale  de  Nogent-sur- 

Marne. 
J^coles  Coloniales  d^ Agriculture  de  Tunis  et  de  Philippeville 

(Algerie). 

Enseignement  technique  industriel 

Conservatoire  National  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  a  Paris,  2g2,  rue  Saint- 
Martin. 
Ecole  Centrale  des  Arts  et  Manufactures,  a  Paris,  i,  rue  Montgolfier. 


388  APPENDIX   II    ' 

£.cole  Centrale  lyonnaise,  a  Lyon. 

Inst  Hut  industriel  du  nord  de  la  France,  a  Lille. 

^cole  speciale  des  Travaux  publics,  du  Bdtiment  et  de  VIndustrie, 
a  Paris,  j,  rue  Thenard. 

Ecole  d'Ingenieurs,  a  Marseille. 

Ecoles  Nationales  des  Arts  et  Metiers  de  Paris  (iji,  boulevard  de 
VHopital),  Aix,  Angers,  Chalons-sur-Marne,  Cluny 
(Saone-et-Loire)  et  Lille. 

Ecoles  nationales  professionnelles,  a  Armentieres  (Nord),  Nantes, 
Vierzon  (Cher),  Voiron  (Isere). 

Ecole  de  la  Martiniere,  a  Lyon. 

Ecole  Nationale  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees,  a  Paris,  28,  rue  des  Saints- 
Feres. 

Ecole  Nationale  superieure  des  Mines,  a  Paris,  60,  boulevard  Saint- 
Michel. 

Ecole  Nationale  des  Mines  de  Saint-Etienne. 

Institut  de  Geologie  de  I'Universite  de  Nancy. 

Institut  d'Hydrologie  de  I'Universite  de  Toulouse. 

Ecoles  des  Mattres  mineurs  d'ALAis  et  Douai. 

Institut  Electrotechnique  de  I'Universite  de  Grenoble. 

Institut  Electrotechnique  de  I'Universite  de  Lille. 

Institut  Electrotechnique  et  de  Mecanique  appliquee  de  I'Universite 
de  Nancy. 

Institut  Electrotechnique  de  I'Universite  de  Toulouse, 

Ecole  Superieure  d'Electricite,  a  Paris,  12,  rue  de  Stael.. 

Ecole  dElectricite  et  de  Mecanique  industrielle,  a  Paris,  50,  rue 
Violet. 

Ecole  d'Electricite  industrielle,  a  Marseille. 

Ecole  pratique  d'Electricite  industrielle,  a  Paris,  jj,  rue  Bel- 
liard. 

Ecole  speciale  de  Mecanique  et  d'Electricite,  a  Paris,  20  bis,  rue 
Bertrand. 

Ecole  Breguet,  a  Paris,  81-83,  ^"^  Falguiere. 

Institut  de  Chimie  appliquee  de  I'Universite  de  Paris. 

Institut  chimique  de  I'Universite  de  Nancy. 

Institut  de  Chimie  de  I'Universite  de  Toulouse. 

Institut  de  Chimie  de  I'Universite  de  Montpellier. 

Institut  et  Ecole  de  Chimie  de  I'Universite  de  Lille. 

Ecole  de  Chimie  appliquee  a  Vindustrie  et  <i  Vagriculture  de  I'Uni- 
versite de  Bordeaux. 

Ecole  de  Chimie  industrielle  de  I'Universite  de  Lyon. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  389 

Ecole  municipale  de  Physique  et  de  Chimie  industrielles,  a  Paris, 

/o,  rue  Vauquelin. 
Institut  de  Chimie  industrielle  de  Clermont-Ferrand. 
Ecole  de  Chimie  industrielle  de  Rouen. 
Institut  Aerotechnique  de  I'Universite  de  Paris,  a  Saint-Cyr- 

l'Ecole  (Seine-et-Oise). 
i^cole  Superieure  d'Aeronautique  et  de  Construction  mecanique,  a 

Paris,  p2,  rue  de  Clignancourt. 
£.cole  Superieure  professionnelle  des  Pastes  et  Telegraphes,  a  Paris, 

70J,  rue  de  Crenelle. 
Ecoles  Nationales  d'Horlogerie  de  Besanjon  et  de  Cluses  (Haute- 

Savoie). 
Ecole  de  Papeterie  de  I'Universite  de  Grenoble. 
Ecole  de  Tannerie  de  I'Universite  de  Lyon. 
Ecole  de  Brasserie  et  de  Malterie  de  I'Universite  de  Nancy. 

Enseignement  technique  commercial 
Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  commercialese  a  Paris,  43,  fue  de  Tocque- 

ville. 
Institut  des  Sciences  commerciales  de  I'Universite  de  Grenoble. 
Institut  Commercial  de  I'Universite  de  Nancy. 
Institut  Commercial  de  Paris,  15,  avenue  de  Wagram. 
£cole  Superieure  pratique  de  Commerce  et  d'Industrie,  a  Paris, 

7P,  avenue  de  la  Republique. 
Ecole  Superieure  pratique  de  Commerce  et  d'Industrie  de  Lille. 
Ecoles  Superieures   de  Commerce   d'ALGER,   Bordeaux,   Dijon, 

Le  Havre,  Lyon,  Marseille,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Nantes, 

Rouen  et  Toulouse. 

Enseignement  des  Beaux-Arts 

l^cole  Nationale  et  speciale  des  Beaux-Arts,  a  Paris,  14,  rue  Bojia- 
parte. 

Ecole  du  Louvre,  a  Paris,  au  Palais  du  Louvre. 

Ecoles  Nationales  des  Beaux-Arts,  a  Alger,  Bourges,  Dijon, 
Lyon,  Toulouse. 

Ecoles  regionales  des  Beaux-Arts,  a  Amiens,  Clermont-Ferrand, 
Montpellier,  Nancy,  Rennes,  Rouen,  Saint-Etienne, 
Tours. 

£:.coles  Municipales  des  Beaux-Arts,  a  Angers,  Avignon,  Bor- 
deaux, Caen,  Grenoble,  Le  Havre,  Lille,  Poitiers. 

£,cole  speciale  d' Architecture,  a  Paris,  254,  boulevard  Raspail. 


390  APPENDIX  II 

Ecoles   regionales    d' Architecture,    a    Lille,    Lyon,    Marseille, 

Rennes  et  Rouen. 
£,cole  de  Sculpture,  a  Grenoble. 
j£cole  Nationale  des  Arts  decoratijs,  a  Paris,  5,  rue  de  I'J^cole-de- 

Medecine  et  10,  rue  de  Seine. 
£coles  Nationales  des  Arts  decoratijs,  a  Aubusson,  Limoges  et 

Nice. 
£,cole  Nationale  des  Beaux- Arts  et  des  Arts  decoratijs  de  Bordeaux. 
Ecole  Nationale  des  Arts  appliques  a  VIndustrie  de  Bourges. 
Ecole  Nationale  des  Arts  appliques  a  VIndustrie,  a  Roubaix  (Nord). 
Ecole  departementale  d'Art  applique  de  Bordeaux. 
Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts  et  des  Sciences  industrielles  de  Toulouse. 
Ecoles  regionales  des  Arts  industriels,  a  Reims  et  a  Saint-Etienne. 
Conservatoire  National  de  Musique  et  de  Declamation,  a  Paris, 

14,  rue  de  Madrid. 
Conservatoires  Nationaux  et  Ecoles  Nationales  de  Musique,  a  Cham- 

BERY,  Dijon,  Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Nantes, 

Nimes,    Perpignan,    Rennes,    Toulouse,    Amiens,    Caen, 

DouAi,  Tours,  etc. 
Schola  Cantorum,  a  Paris,  26Q,  rue  Saint- Jacques. 

Among  the  schools  enumerated  above  are  several,  mostly 
located  in  Paris,  to  which  special  attention  should  be  called,  either 
since  they  offer  lines  of  work  which  are  not  presented  by  the 
Universities  or  since  their  work  extends  and  supplements  the  work 
of  the  Universities. 

College  de  France.  Founded  in  1530  by  Francis  I,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  then  mediaevalism  of  the  Sorbonne,  the  College  de  France 
has  been  throughout  its  history  one  of  the  most  famous  and 
active  seats  of  liberal  investigation  in  the  world.  Its  central  aim 
is  to  contribute  to  the  progress  of  science  by  discoveries,  research, 
and  instruction  and  finally  by  special  undertakings  and  publica- 
tions. As  at  present  constituted,  it  comprises  forty-five  chairs  of 
research,  representing  nearly  all  the  main  lines  of  investigation. 
In  general  function  it  corresponds  very  closely  to  our  Carnegie 
Institution. 

The  courses  of  lectures  are  open  to  the  general  public  without 
any  charge.  On  the  contrary,  admission  to  the  laboratories  is 
granted  only  to  persons  authorized  by  the  professors  in  charge  and 
who  evidence  sufficient  preparation.  The  College  de  France  con- 
fers no  degree  and  grants  no  diploma.    However,  each  professor 


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INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  391 

may  deliver  either  "Certificats  d'assiduite"  or  "Certificats  de 
recherches"  or  "d'etudes,"  which  are  countersigned  by  the 
Director. 

Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  at  57  rue  Cuvier,  Paris.  The 
Museum  has  as  its  object  to  provide  pubHc  instruction  in  natural 
history;  but  through  its  instruction  and  through  the  investiga- 
tions carried  on  in  its  laboratories,  it  is  an  institution  of  pure 
science,  of  free  and  disinterested  research.  It  comprises  eighteen 
chairs,  devoted  to  the  different  branches  of  biological  science. 

The  courses  of  the  Museum  are  open  to  the  general  public 
free  of  charge.  In  order  to  follow  the  lectures  and  experiments, 
it  is  necessary  to  enroll  at  the  various  laboratories;  but  no  diploma 
is  required,  and  foreigners  are  admitted  on  the  same  conditions 
as  Frenchmen.  The  Museum,  like  the  College  de  France,  confers 
no  degree  and  delivers  no  diploma.  However,  a  "Certificat 
d'assiduite"  may  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  year  to  regular  attend- 
ants by  the  professors  whose  courses  they  have  followed. 

Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes,  at  the  Sorbonne.  This 
school  is  intended  to  furnish,  alongside  the  purely  theoretical 
instruction  of  the  Faculties,  advanced  practical  work  which  may 
strengthen  and  extend  it. 

The  school  is  divided  into  five  sections:  (i)  Historical  and 
philological  sciences;  (2)  Mathematical  sciences;  (3)  Physical- 
chemical  sciences;  (4)  Biological  sciences;  (5)  Religious  sciences. 
But  only  the  sections  of  Historical  and  Philological  sciences  and 
that  of  Religious  sciences  are  centraHzed,  and,  installed  at  the 
Sorbonne,  have  a  real  and  autonomous  existence.  The  others  are 
constituted  by  courses  and  laboratories  at  the  Museum,  the 
College  de  France,  and  at  the  Faculties  of  the  University  of  Paris 
and  even  of  the  provinces. 

The  courses  are  open  to  the  public  free  of  charge.  No  require- 
ment as  to  age,  nationality,  or  degree  is  demanded  for  enrollment. 
But  in  order  to  be  admitted  to  a  laboratory,  it  is  necessary  to  obtain 
the  permission  of  the  Director. 

The  normal  course  of  study  is  three  years.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  year,  which  is  a  sort  of  probation  year,  the  regular  attendants 
who  have  done  satisfactory  work  receive  the  title  of  "Eleves 
titulaires  de  I'ecole  pratique  des  hautes  etudes";  at  the  end  of  three 
years,  they  may,  by  presenting  a  memoir,  obtain  the  title  of 
"Eleves  diplomes." 


392  APPENDIX  II 

Insiilut  Pasteur,  at  26,  rue  Dutot,  Paris.  Thelnstitut  Pasteur 
is  at  the  same  time  a  center  of  research,  a  school  of  higher  instruc- 
tion, and,  in  certain  of  its  sections,  a  medical  establishment.  It  is 
divided  into  three  sections:  Section  of  microbiology;  Section  of 
serotherapy;  Section  of  biological  chemistry. 

In  this  latter  section  theoretical  and  practical  instruction  is 
offered,  comprising  courses  and  laboratory  work  during  three 
months  beginning  in  November.  The  fees  for  laboratory  work, 
material,  and  instruction  is  250  francs.  A  "Certificat  de  presence 
et  d'etudes"  may  be  granted  to  students  who  have  followed  regu- 
larly the  courses  and  laboratory  work. 

Ecole  Libre  des  Sciences  Politiques,  at  27,  rue  Saint-Guill- 
aume,  Paris.  This  is  one  of  the  most  famous  schools  in  the  world, 
in  the  field  of  the  political,  social,  and  economic  sciences.  Its 
courses  of  study  comprise  all  the  sciences  necessary  for  the  train- 
ing of  anyone  who  would  make  politics  his  profession  or  would 
enter  upon  an  administrative  career. 

Organization.  The  courses  and  lectures  are  grouped  under 
five  sections:  Administrative  section;  Economic  and  Financial 
section;  Economic  and  Social  section;  Diplomatic  section;  General 
section  (Public  law  and  history).  The  course  of  study  normally 
requires  three  years.  A  supplementary  year,  comprised  of  special 
courses,  is  open  to  graduate  students  of  the  school. 

Conditions  of  admission.  The  School  receives  regularly  en- 
rolled pupils  or  auditors,  whether  foreigners  or  Frenchmen.  No 
university  degree  nor  any  examination  is  required  for  admission. 

Fees.  Enrollment  for  the  entire  normal  course  of  study: 
350  francs  a  year.  Partial  enrollment  for  a  single  course  or  for 
one  lecture  a  week:  70  francs  a  year.  Enrollment  for  the  supple- 
mentary year:  250  francs. 

Degree.  In  each  section,  a  partial  examination  is  held  at  the 
end  of  each  year  and  a  general  examination  at  the  end  of  the  three 
years'  course.  A  diploma  is  conferred  on  the  candidates  who  suc- 
cessfully pass  these  examinations.  Fees  for  the  examinations  and 
the  diploma:   140  francs. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  393 

II.    Degrees,  Diplomas,  and  Certificates 
IN  THE  Universities. 

Scholastic  work  done  in  French  Universities  may  be  attested 
by  certificates  of  assiduity,  or  by  degrees^  diplomas,  and  certificates. 

There  are  two  great  and  distinct  groups  of  degrees,  diplomas, 
and  certificates:  (i)  those  conferred  by  the  State;  (2)  those  con- 
ferred by  the  Universities. 

(i)  The  degrees,  diplomas,  and  certificates,  conferred  by  the 
State,  grant  to  those  who  possess  them  various  prerogatives,  par- 
ticularly the  right  of  practising  in  France  certain  professions. 

(2)  The  degrees,  diplomas,  and  certificates  conferred  by  the 
Universities  themselves,  and  in  their  own  name,  serve  to  attest 
studies  pursued  for  which  the  State  has  created  no  formal  approval; 
or  again  they  put  upon  the  same  studies  as  those  pursued  for  the 
corresponding  degrees  of  the  State  a  stamp  of  equal  value,  without 
conferring  the  right  to  practise  in  France  the  professions  for  which 
the  possession  of  the  latter  is  required.  As,  in  general,  the  condi- 
tions of  "inscription"  for  the  degrees  conferred  by  the  Universities 
make  it  possible  to  take  fuller  account  of  the  scholastic  work 
already  done  in  other  countries,  these  degrees  and  diplomas  are 
more  easily  accessible  to  foreign  students. 

I.    Certificates  oe  Assiduity  ("  Certificats  d'assiduite"). 

These  certificates  are  especially  useful  to  foreign  students  who 
desire  to  receive  credit  in  the  universities  of  their  native  country 
for  the  time  they  have  spent  in  a  French  University.  They  may 
be  earned  by  any  foreign  student  who  has  been  regularly  matricu- 
lated and  who  has  taken  part  in  the  prescribed  work  of  a  Faculty  or 
School  during  at  least  one  semester. 

As  the  formalities  for  keeping  track  of  this  prescribed  work 
vary  from  University  to  University  and  from  Faculty  to  Faculty, 
all  students  desiring,  at  the  end  of  their  studies,  to  obtain  such  a 
certificate  are  recommended  to  make  this  intention  known  when 
they  matriculate  at  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  their  Faculty. 
They  will  then  receive  instructions  relative  to  their  various  obliga- 
tions. 

A  request  for  a  Certificate  of  Assiduity  must  be  addressed  to 
the  o£&ce  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Faculty  at  the  end  of  the 
semester. 


394  APPENDIX  II 

II.    Degrees,  Diplomas,  and  Certificates  Conperred 
BY  the  State. 

These  degrees,  diplomas,  and  certificates  are  those  required  by 
the  State  for  the  practice  in  France  of  various  professions. 

They  will  be  found  enumerated  in  the  following  description, 
grouped  under  the  Faculties  which  confer  them,  together  with  an 
indication  of  the  work  prescribed  and  fees  required. 

A.    Degrees  and  Diplomas  in  Law 

The  degrees  and  diplomas  of  the  State,  earned  under  the  Facul- 
ties of  Law,  are  the  "Certificat  de  capacite  en  droit,"  the  "Licence 
en  droit,"  and  the  "Doctorat  en  droit." 

Certificat  de  Capacite  en  Droit.  Open  to  both  French  and 
foreign  students  without  any  requirement  as  to  degrees  or  diplomas. 
Prescribed  work:  Two  years  of  study,  evidenced  by  eight  "in- 
scriptions;" examinations  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  two  years. 
Expenses  involved:  "Inscriptions,"  260  francs;  fees  for  ex- 
aminations and  certificate,  130  francs. 

Licence  en  Droit.  Open  to  French  students  who  produce  the 
"baccalaureat"  or  an  exemption  from  the  "baccalaureat,"  and  to 
foreign  students  who  can  produce  the  "baccalaureat"  or  who 
have  obtained  an  equivalence  of  the  "baccalaureat."  Prescribed 
course:  Three  years  of  study,  involving  twelve  "inscriptions;" 
examinations  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  three  years  of  study.  Suc- 
cess in  passing  the  examinations  which  close  the  second  year 
confers  the  degree  of  "bachelier  en  droit."  Expenses  involved: 
"Inscriptions,"  390  francs;  fees  for  examinations  and  diplomas, 
750  francs. 

Doctorat  en  Droit.  The  "doctorat  en  droit"  is  general,  as  far 
as  the  degree  is  concerned,  but  the  diploma  bears  an  indication  of 
one  of  the  two  lines  of  specialization:  "sciences  juridiques"  or 
"sciences  politiques  et  economiques."  Conditions  of  admission: 
Candidates  must  be  "licencies  en  droit."  Foreigners  who  have 
not  obtained  the  "licence  en  droit,"  but  who  have  aheady  gradu- 
ated from  a  foreign  university,  may  become  candidates  for  the 
"doctorat"  on  the  condition  that  they  obtain  an  equivalence  of  the 
"hcence."  Prescribed  work:  One  year  of  study,  involving  four 
"inscriptions;"  examinations:  two  oral  examinations  and  the 
defense  of  a  thesis.  Expenses  involved:  "Inscriptions,"  130 
francs;  fees  for  examinations,  thesis  and  diploma,  445  francs. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  395 

B.    Degrees  and  Diplomas  in  Medicine 

The  degrees  and  diplomas  of  the  State,  earned  under  the  Facul- 
ties of  Medicine,  the  "Facultes  mixtes,"  and  the  "Ecoles  de  plein 
exercice  de  Medecine  et  de  Pharmacie,"  are  the  "Doctorat  en 
medecine,"  the  ''Diplome  de  chirurgien-dentiste,"  and  the  "Di- 
plomes  de  sagefemme"  (ist  and  2nd  class). 

Doctor  at  en  Medecine.  The  diploma  of  the  State  of  "  docteur  en 
medecine"  is  the  degree  which  confers  the  right  to  practice  medicine 
throughout  the  entire  extent  of  French  territory.  Conditions  of 
admission:  Candidates  must  present  the  " baccalaureat  frangais" 
and  the  ''certificat  d'etudes  physiques,  chimiques  et  naturelles" 
("P.  C.  N."),  granted  by  a  Faculty  of  Science.  No  exemption  or 
equivalence  is  admitted.  Prescribed  course:  Five  years  of  re- 
quired studies,  involving  twenty  "inscriptions."  CHnical  work  is 
obligatory  during  the  entire  term  of  study.  During  the  first  four 
years  it  must  be  pursued  at  the  seat  of  the  faculty  or  School  itself; 
during  the  fifth  year,  it  may,  with  the  consent  of  the  Faculty,  be 
pursued  in  institutions  at  the  choice  of  the  student  either  in  France 
or  abroad.  Internes  and  externes  attached  to  hospitals,  who  are 
appointed  on  the  basis  of  competitive  examinations  may  count 
their  service  as  equivalent  to  the  clinical  work  in  medicine  and 
surgery.  Examinations  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  five  years  of 
study.  Three  clinical  examinations.  Defense  of  a  thesis.  Ex- 
penses involved:  "Inscriptions"  and  laboratory  fees,  950  francs; 
fees  for  examinations,  thesis  and  diploma,  690  francs. 

Diplome  de  Chirurgien-Dentiste.  This  diploma  is  required  of 
everyone  who  wishes  to  practice  dentistry  in  France.  Conditions 
of  admission:  Candidates  must  be  at  least  16  years  old  and  must 
present  either  the  " baccalaureat,"  or  the  "brevet  superiem:  de 
I'enseignement  primaire,"  or  the  "certificate  d'etudes  primaires 
superieures,"  or  the  "diplome  de  fin  d'etudes  de  I'enseignement 
secondaire  des  jeunes  fiUes."  No  equivalence  or  exemption  is 
permitted.  Prescribed  course:  Five  years,  comprising  three  years 
of  studies  and  two  years  of  clinical  work,  involving  twelve  "in- 
scriptions." The  clinical  and  scholastic  work  is  done,  either  in  the 
Faculties  or  Schools  of  Medicine  in  which  dental  instruction  is 
organized,  or  in  the  independent  institutions  of  higher  dental 
instruction;  e.  g.,  the  "ficole  dentaire,"  the  "Ecole  odontotech- 
nique,"  and  the  "Ecole  dentaire  franjaise"  in  Paris.  A  partial 
exemption  from  the  prescribed  course  may  be  granted  to  foreign 
dentists  if  they  have  already  obtained  one  of  the  French  diplomas 


396  APPENDIX  II 

indicated  above.  Examinations:  (i)  A  test  of  clinical  knowledge 
and  ability;  (2)  three  examinations,  one  at  the  end  of  each  year  of 
scholastic  work.  Medical  students  who  present  twelve  "inscrip- 
tions" are  admitted  to  the  examinations  for  the  "diplome  de 
chirurgien-dentiste,"  with  complete  exemption  from  the  first  of 
these  examinations  if  they  complete  successfully  the  two  years  of 
clinical  work.  Expenses  involved:  The  fees  in  the  various  in- 
dependent schools  of  dentistry  vary  from  1000  to  2500  francs  for 
the  three-year  course;  fees  for  examinations  and  diploma,  250 
francs. 

Diplome  de  Sage-Femme.  These  diplomas  must  be  produced 
by  all  women  who  would  practice  the  art  of  midwifery  in  French 
territory. 

C.     Degrees  and  Diplomas  in  the  Sciences. 

The  degrees  and  diplomas  of  the  State,  earned  under  the  Faculties 
of  Sciences,  are  the  "  Certificat  d'etudes  physiques,  chimiques  et 
naturelles"  (P.  C.  N.),  the  "Certificats  d'etudes  superieures  de 
sciences,"  the  "Licence,"  the  "Diplomes  d'etudes  superieures  de 
sciences,"  and  the  "Doctorat  es  sciences." 

Cert  ificatd  'Etudes  Physiques,  Chimiques  et  Naturelles  ("P.C.N."). 
Open  to  French  students  who  present  the  "baccalaureat,"  or  the 
"brevet  superieur,"  or  the  "certificat  d'etudes  primaires  supe- 
rieures," or  the  "diplome  de  fin  d'etudes  de  I'enseignement  secon- 
daire  des  jeunes  filles."  Foreign  students  who  have  not  obtained 
the  "baccalaureat"  may  work  for  this  certificate  by  obtaining  an 
equivalence  therefor.  However,  all  students,  foreigners  as  well  as 
Frenchmen,  who  desire,  by  presenting  this  certificate,  to  become 
candidates  for  the  degree  of  "docteur  en  medecine"  conferred  by 
the  State,  must  absolutely  be  provided  with  the  "baccalaureat 
franjais."  Prescribed  course:  A  year  of  study  involving  four 
"inscriptions;"  examinations  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Expenses 
involved:  Inscriptions  and  laboratory  fees,  220  francs;  examina- 
tion, 85  francs. 

Certificats  d'etudes  Superieures  de  Sciences.  The  number  and 
nature  of  these  certificates  vary  according  to  the  Universities.  In 
the  sections  devoted  to  the  various  Faculties  of  Sciences  in  the 
hand-book  published  by  the  Ofiice  National  des  Universities  et 
Ecoles  Franfaises  or  in  the  "Livrets  de  I'Etudiant"  published  by 
each  University,  will  be  found  a  complete  list  of  the  certificates 
conferred   by   each   Faculty.     Conditions   of  admission:    These 


PARIS.     THE  SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCES. 
ONE  OF  THE  BOTANICAL  LABORATORIES 


PARIS.     THE  SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCES. 
LABORATORY  OF  BIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY 


INSTITUTIONS   DEGREES,  ETC.  397 

certificates  are  open  to  French  students  who  present  the  "bac- 
calaureat"  or  an  exemption  therefrom,  and  to  foreign  students  who 
have  aheady  obtained  the  "  baccalaureat "  or  an  equivalence  for 
the ' '  baccalaureat . ' '  Prescribed  course :  One  year  of  study  involv- 
ing four  "inscriptions";  examinations  comprise  a  written  test,  a 
test  as  to  laboratory  ability,  and  an  oral  test.  Expenses  involved: 
"Inscriptions,"  130  francs;  the  laboratory  fees  vary  from  40  to 
100  francs  according  to  the  nature  of  the  studies;  examination 
fee,  35  francs  for  the  first  certificate,  and  30  francs  for  each  suc- 
ceeding certificate. 

Licence  es  Sciences.  The  "diplome  de  licencie  es  sciences  "is 
conferred,  on  the  payment  of  a  diploma  fee  of  40  francs,  to  any 
student  who  has  obtained  three  of  the  "certificats  d'etudes  supe- 
rieures,"  chosen  by  him  from  the  list  of  those  which  the  Faculty 
is  authorized  to  grant. 

Dipldmes  d' Etudes  superieures  de  Sciences.  These  diplomas  are 
three  in  number  and  bear  an  indication  of  one  of  the  following  lines 
of  specialization:  Mathematics,  Physical  sciences.  Natural 
sciences.  Conditions  of  admission:  No  condition  whatever  as  to 
age,  "inscription,"  degree,  or  nationality  is  required.  Examina- 
tions: (i)  Composition  of  a  monograph  bearing  on  a  subject 
approved  by  the  Faculty;  (2)  an  oral  examination  on  this  work 
and  allied  subject-matter. 

Doctoral  es  Sciences.  The  "doctorat  es  sciences"  is  general,  so 
far  as  the  degree  is  concerned,  but  the  diploma  may  bear  an  indica- 
tion of  one  of  the  following  lines  of  specialization:  Mathematics, 
Physical  sciences,  Natural  sciences.  Conditions  of  admission: 
Candidates  must  be  "licencies  es  sciences"  ("Licence  d'enseigne- 
ment")  or,  if  they  are  foreigners,  have  obtained  an  equivalence  of 
the  "licence."  Examinations:  Two  theses  or  a  thesis  and  a  dis- 
cussion of  problems  formulated  by  the  Faculty.  Fees  for  the 
examination  and  diploma:   145  francs. 

D.    Degrees  and  Diplomas  in  Letters. 

The  degrees  and  diplomas  of  the  State,  earned  under  the  Faculties 
of  Letters,  are  the  "Licence  es  lettres,"  the  "Diplomes  d'etudes 
superieures,"  and  the  "Doctorat  es  lettres." 

The  "diplome  de  licencie  es  lettres"  bears  an  indication  of  one 
of  the  following  lines  of  specialization:  Philosophy,  History  and 
Geography,  Classical  Languages  and  Literatures,  Modern  Lan- 
guages and  Literatures.     Conditions  of  admission:  French  candi- 


398  APPENDIX  II 

dates  must  present  the  "  baccalaureat "  or  an  exemption  therefrom, 
and  foreign  candidates,  if  they  have  not  the  "baccalaureat  fran- 
fais,"  must  have  obtained  an  equivalence  therefor.  Prescribed 
course:  A  year  of  study  involving  four  "inscriptions;"  the  ex- 
aminations comprise  both  written  and  oral  tests.  Expenses 
involved:  "Inscriptions,"  130  francs;  examination  fee,  105 
francs. 

Diplome  d'&udes  Superieures  de  Lettres.  These  diplomas  are 
four  in  number,  corresponding  to  the  four  following  lines  of  spe- 
cialization: Philosophy,  History  and  Geography,  Classical  Lan- 
guages and  Literatures,  Modern  Languages  and  Literatures. 
Conditions  of  admission:  No  requirement  as  to  age,  "inscription," 
degree,  or  nationality  is  demanded.  Examinations:  (i)  Com- 
position of  a  monograph  on  a  subject  approved  by  the  Faculty; 
(2)  oral  examination  on  this  composition  and  allied  subject 
matter. 

Doctoral  es  Lettres.  The  candidates  must  be  "licencies  es 
lettres"  or,  if  they  are  foreigners,  have  obtained  an  equivalence  of 
the ' '  licence  "  (cf .  infra) .  Examinations :  Two  theses  must  be  pre- 
sented and  defended.  The  first  must  be  written  in  French.  The 
second,  which  may  be  a  memoir  or  a  critical  study,  must  be  written 
either  in  French  or  in  one  of  the  ancient  or  modern  languages  taught 
at  the  Faculty.  It  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  a  work  of  erudition : 
critical  bibliography  or  catalogue,  critical  edition  of  an  important 
text  not  already  pubUshed  or  badly  published,  critical  examination 
of  or  commentary  on  a  document,  etc.  The  subject  and  plan  of 
both  the  theses  must  be  approved  by  the  Faculty.  The  fees  for 
the  theses  and  the  diploma  amount  to  140  francs. 

E.    Degrees  and  Diplomas  in  Pharmaceutical  Studies 
The  degrees  and  diplomas  conferred  by  the  State  for  pharma- 
ceutical studies  are  the  "Diplome  de  pharmacien,"  "Diplome 
superieur  de  pharmacien,"  and  "Certificats  d'aptitude  a  la  pro- 
fession d'herboriste." 

The  "diplome  de  pharmacien"  is  required  of  every  one  acting 
as  a  pharmacist  in  France.  The  "baccalaureat  franjais"  is 
absolutely  required  of  all  candidates,  French  or  foreign,  for  either 
of  the  first  two  degrees  mentioned  above. 

Since  the  number  of  American  students  interested  in  this  line 
of  work  is  apt  to  be  much  smaller  than  in  the  lines  previously 
mentioned,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  handbook  of  the 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  399 

Office  National  des  Universites  or  the  "Livrets  de  I'Etudiant" 
of  the  various  Universities  for  the  conditions  of  admission,  courses 
prescribed,  examinations  and  fees  incident  to  each  of  these 
degrees. 

III.    Degrees,  Diplomas,  and  Certificates  Conferred 
BY  THE  Universities. 

As  has  already  been  said  above,  the  Universities  have 
created  degrees  and  diplomas,  either  for  stamping  with  formal 
approval  and  value  courses  of  study  to  which  no  degree  or  diploma 
of  the  State  corresponds,  or  for  rendering  it  possible  for  foreign 
students,  by  receiving  credit  for  their  previous  foreign  studies,  to 
obtain  diplomas  which  have  the  same  scientific  value  as  the 
corresponding  diplomas  conferred  by  the  State,  but  which  do  not 
grant  the  same  right  to  practise  in  France  certain  professions. 

Since  these  degrees  and  diplomas  are  created  by  the  Univer- 
sities themselves,  the  work  prescribed  and  the  fees  required  vary 
from  one  University  to  another,  even  though  the  names  by  which 
they  are  designated  are  the  same.  Furthermore,  since  the  degrees 
number  nearly  a  hundred,  each  with  its  own  requirements,  it  has 
seemed  wise  to  present  merely  a  list  of  these  degrees  and  diplomas 
to  indicate  their  variety  and  scope;  and  then  to  single  out  for  special 
consideration  a  few  in  which  American  students  would  more  Ukely 
be  interested. 

In  the  following  list,  which  is  reproduced  from  the  Handbook  of 
the  Office  National  des  Universites  et  Ecoles  Franfaises  (pp.  48- 
52),  each  degree  and  diploma  is  arranged  under  the  head  of  the 
Faculty  which  confers  it.  For  a  complete  statement  of  the  re- 
quirements for  obtaining  these  various  degrees,  consult  the  Hand- 
book or  the  "Livrets  de  I'etudiant"  issued  by  the  various  Uni- 
versities. 

A.    Degrees  and  Diplomas  for  Studies  in  Law,  Politics, 
Economics,  and  Commerce 

Doctoral  en  droit:  Universites  de  Paris,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille, 

Lyon,  et  Nancy. 
Doctoral  es  lois:  Universite  de  Caen. 
Licence  en  droit:  Universites  de  Dijon  et  de  Nancy. 
Certificat  superieur  de  capacite  en  droit:   Universite  de  Grenoble. 
Certificat  d'  etudes  juridiques:  Universite  de  Nancy. 


400  APPENDIX  II 

Certificat  d^ etudes  pratiques  de  droit:    Universites  de  Bordeaux, 

Caen,  Dijon,  Lille,  Poitiers. 
Certificat  d' etudes  notariales:  Universite  de  Lyon. 
Certificat  d^ etudes  des  sciences  juridiques,  politiques  ou  economiques: 

Universite  de  Dijon. 
Diploma  de  VInstitut  lyonnais  des  sciences  economiques  et  politiques: 

University  de  Lyon. 
Certificat  de  sciences  p males:  Universite  de  Paris. 
Certificat  d' etudes  penales:  Universite  de  Montpellier. 
Certificat  d' etudes  administratives  et  financieres:    Universites   de 

Paris  et  de  Toulouse. 
CertiUcat  d' etudes  administratives  algeriennes:   Universite  d'ALGER. 
Certificat  superieur  d^ etudes  administratives  algerie^mes:   Universite 

D  Alger. 
Diplomes  d' etudes  coloniales:  Universite  de  Nancy. 
Diplome  de  VInstitut  d'enseignement  commercial  de  I'Universite  de 

Grenoble. 
Certificat  d^ etudes  de  VInstitut  d'enseignement  commercial  de  I'Uni- 
versite de  Grenoble. 
Diplome  d'ingenieur  commercial:   Universite  de  Nancy. 
Diplome  d' etudes  superieures  commer dales:   Universite  de  Nancy. 
Certificat  d' etudes  superieures  commerciales:  Universite  de  Nancy. 

B.     Degrees  and  Diplomas  for  Studies  in  Medicine 
and  Allied  Subjects 

Doctoral  en  medecine:  Universites  de  Paris,  Alger,  Bordeaux, 
Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Toulouse. 

Diplome  de  medecin  colonial:  Universites  de  Paris  et  de  Bor- 
deaux. 

Diplome   d'etudes   medicales    coloniales:     Universite    dAix-MAR- 

SEILLE. 

Diplome  de  medecine  legale  et  psychiatric:   Universite  de  Paris. 

Diplome  d'etudes  de  medecine  legale  et  de  psychidtrie  medicolegale: 
Universite  de  Lille. 

Diploma  d'etudes  psycho-physiologiques:    Universite  de  Lyon. 

Diploma  da  docteur  es  sciences  biologiques:  Universite  de  Nancy. 

Certificat  d'etudes  speciales  d'hygiene:   Universite  de  Lille. 

Certificat  d'etudes  d'hygiene:  Universites  de  Lyon  et  de  Toulouse. 

Certificat  d'etudes  hydrologiques:  Universite  de  Toulouse. 

Diplome  de  chirurgien-dentista  pour  las  etudiants  Strangers:  Uni- 
versites de  Bordeaux,  Lille  et  Nancy. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  401 

C.    Degrees  and  Diplomas  for  Studies  in  the  Sciences 

(Pure  and  Applied  Sciences,  Mathematics,  Physics, 

Chemistry,  Biology,  Electrotechnic,  etc.) 

Doctoral  es  sciences:  Universites  de  Paris,  Aix-Marseille, 
BESANfON,  Bordeaux,  Clermont,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille, 
Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Toulouse. 

Diplome  de  mathematiques  generates:  Universite  de  Lyon. 

Diplome  de  licencie  mecanicien:  Universite  de  Lille. 

Diplome  dHngenieur  mecanicien:   Universite  de  Nancy. 

Diplome  de  licencie  physicien:  Universite  de  Lille. 

Brevet  d' electricite  industrielle:  Universites  d' Aix-Marseille  et  de 
Clermont. 

Certificat  d'etiides  d' electricite  industrielle:    Universite  d' Alger. 

Diplome  d' electricite  appliquee:  Universite  de  Besanjon. 

Brevet  ou  certificat  d^  etudes  electrotechniques:  Universites  de  Gre- 
noble, Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier. 

Diplome  dHngenieur  electricien:  Universites  de  Grenoble,  Nancy, 
Toulouse. 

Brevet  d' electricien:  Universite  de  Poitiers. 

Brevet  de  conducteur  electricien:  Universite  de  Grenoble. 

Diplome  d'ingenieur  chimiste:  Universites  de  Paris,  Bordeaux, 
Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Toulouse. 

Diplome  de  chimiste:  Universites  d'Aix-MARSEiLLE,  Alger, 
Clermont,  Rennes. 

Brevet  de  chimie  industrielle:  Universite  de  Clermont. 

Brevet  d^ etudes  techniques  de  chimie  industrielle:  Universite  de 
Lyon. 

Brevet  de  chimie  agricole:  Universite  de  Clermont. 

Diplome  de  chimiste  agricole:  Universite  de  Poitiers. 

Diplome  de  sciences  chimiques  et  naturelles  appliquees  a  V agriculture: 
Universite  de  Rennes. 

Diplome  d' agriculture:  Universite  de  Besanjon. 

Diplome  d' etudes  agronomiques  superieures:   Universite  de  Lyon. 

Diplome  d' etudes  superieures  agronomiques:  Universite  de  Nancy, 

Diplome  d' etudes  d'agronomie:   Universite  de  Caen. 

Diplome  d'etudes  agricoles:   Universite  de  Toulouse. 

Diplome  d'etudes  coloniales:  Universite  de  Nancy. 

Diplome  de  licencie  geologue:  Universite  de  Lille. 

Diplome  dingenieur  geologue:  Universite  de  Nancy. 

Diplome  de  geologue  mineralogiste:   Universite  d' Alger. 


402  APPENDIX  II 

Diplome  dliydrohiologie  et  de  pisciculture:  Universite  de  Toulouse. 
Certificat  d'etudes  superieures  de  sciences  appliquees  au  genie  civil: 

Universite  d' Alger. 
Diplome    d'etudes    superieures    aerodynamiques:     Universite    de 

Nancy. 
Diplome  d'ingenieur  horloger:  Universite  de  Besanq on. 
Brevet  d'oenologie:  Universite  de  Dijon. 

Diplome  superieur  d'etudes  cenologiques:    Universite  de  DijON. 
Diplome  d'ingenieur  papetier:  Universite  de  Grenoble. 
Brevet  de  conducteur  papetier:  Universite  de  Grenoble. 
Diplome  d'etudes  superieures  de  brasserie:  Universite  de  Nancy. 
Dipldme  d'ingenieur  brasseur:  Universite  de  Nancy. 
Certificat  d'etudes  de  I'Ecole  de  laiterie:  Universite  de  Nancy. 
Diplome  d'etudes  psycho-physiologiques:   Universite  de  Lyon. 
Certificat   de   maturite   du    College    oriental   de    I'Universite    de 

Lyon. 
Dipldme  d'aptitude  a  V enseignement  {mention  Sciences)  du  College 

oriental  de  I'Universite  de  Lyon. 
Dipldme  d'etudes  scientifiques  du  ColUge  oriental  de  I'Universite  de 

Lyon. 

D.   Degrees  and  Diplomas  for  Studies  in  the  Humanities 
(Literatures,  Linguistics,  Philosophy,  History, 
Geography,  etc.) 

Doctoral  es  lettres:  Universites  de  Paris,  Aix-Marseille,  Be- 
SANfON,  Bordeaux,  Caen,  Clermont,  Dijon,  Grenoble, 
Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Poitiers,  Rennes, 
Toulouse. 

Dipldme  d'etudes  universitaires:  Universites  de  Paris  et  de  Bor- 
deaux. 

Certificat  d'etudes  litter  aires:  Universite  de  Poitiers. 

Certificat  d'etudes  franqaises:  Universites  de  Paris,  Besan^on, 
Bordeaux,  Caen,  Clermont,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyon, 
Montpellier,  Nancy,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  Toulouse. 

Diplome  de  langue  Jranqaise:  Universite  de  Dijon. 

Brevet  de  langue  Jranqaise:  Universite  de  Dijon. 

Dipldme  de  hautes  etudes  de  langue  et  de  litterature  franqaises: 
Universite  de  Grenoble. 

Dipldme  d'etudes  superieures  de  phonetique  Jranqaise:  Universites 
de  Grenoble  et  de  Lille. 

Certificat  de  maturite  du  College  oriental  de  I'Universite  de  Lyon. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  403 

Dipldme  d'apiiiude  a  V enseignement  {mention  lettres)  du  College 

oriental  de  Universite  de  Lyon. 
Dipldme  d'etudes  litteraires  du  College  oriental  de  I'Umversite 

de  Lyon. 
Certificat   d^ aptitude   a   V enseignement   du  franqais   a   r  etr anger: 

Universites  de  Grenoble  et  de  Poitiers. 
Certificat  superieur  pour  V enseignement  du  franqais  a  I'etranger: 

Universite  de  Grenoble. 
Dipldme  d'etudes  pedagogiques  superieures:  Universite  de  Lyon. 
Dipldme  d'etudes  psycko-physiologiques:   Universite  de  Lyon. 
Dipldme  d'etudes  russes:  Universites  de  Dijon  et  de  Lille. 
Dipldme  d'etudes  chinoises:  Universite  de  Lyon. 
Dipldme  d'etudes  celtiques:  Universite  de  Rennes. 

E.    Degrees   and  Diplomas  for  Pharmaceutical  Studies 

Doctoral  en  pharmacie:  Universites  de  Paris,  Alger,  Bordeaux, 
Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Toulouse. 

Dipldme  de  pharmacien:  Universites  de  Paris,  Bordeaux,  Nancy. 

Dipldme  d'etudes  de  pharmacien  de  j'®  classe:  Universite  de  Lyon. 

Dipldme  superieur  d'etudes  de  pharmacien  de  i'®  classe:  Universite 
de  Lyon. 

Dipldme  d'etudes  pharmaceutiques  coloniales:  Universite  d'Aix- 
Marseille. 

Two  groups  of  degrees  in  this  somewhat  bewildering  list  will 
prove  of  special  interest  to  a  large  number  of  American  students: 
(i)  the  "doctorats  de  Tuniversite"  ("mention  Droit,  Medecine, 
Sciences,  Lettres,  Pharmacie");  (2)  the  "certificats  d'etudes 
frangaises,"  "diplome  de  langue  franjaise,"  and  other  degrees 
conferred  on  foreign  students  only,  for  their  achievements  in 
French  language  and  literature. 

(i)  The  ^^ doctoral  de  V universite,"  which  is  conferred  by  the 
Universities  themselves,  is  the  degree  most  often  sought  by  Ameri- 
can graduate  students  in  France.  And  for  two  good  reasons: 
first,  it  is  declared  by  the  French  educational  authorities  to  have 
the  same  scientific  and  academic  value  as  the  "doctorat  de  I'Etat," 
and  its  status  in  this  country  is  approximately  that  of  the  usual 
American  doctor's  degree;  secondly,  the  latitude  permitted  to  the 
Universities  in  establishing  equivalences  between  college  and  uni- 
versity work  completed  in  another  country  and  the  French  re- 
quirements gives  less  diflQculty  in  satisfying  the  technical  conditions 


404  APPENDIX  II 

for  becoming  a  candidate  for  the  degree.  On  this  point  consult 
more  particularly  what  is  stated  below,  under  "Equivalences." 

The  "doctorat  de  I'universite"  bears  an  indication  of  one  of  the 
five  lines  of  specialization,  corresponding  to  the  faculty  in  which 
the  studies  are  pursued,  as  Law,  Medicine,  Sciences,  Letters,  or 
Pharmacy.  Not  all  the  Universities  confer  the  degree  in  all  these 
lines  of  specialization,  even  when  the  University  comprises  a  cor- 
responding Faculty.  For  example,  of  the  sixteen  French  Uni- 
versities, two  have  no  Faculty  of  Law  (Besanjon  and  Clermont- 
Ferrand).  Out  of  the  remaining  fourteen  which  possess  such 
Faculties,  only  seven  confer  the  "doctorat  de  I'universite,  mention 
Droit." 

In  tlie  following  brief  description  of  the  "doctorat  de  I'univer- 
site" in  the  different  branches  in  which  it  is  conferred,  the  attempt 
has  been  simply  to  indicate  the  Universities  in  which  the  degree 
is  granted,  the  general  requirements,  and  the  range  of  fees. 

Doctorat  de  rUniversite,  mention  Droit,  Conferred  by  the 
Universities  of  Paris,  Caen,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyon,  and 
Nancy.  Open  to  foreign  students  only  who  present  the  French 
diploma  of  "licence  en  droit,"  or  who  obtain  from  the  Faculty, 
on  the  basis  of  diplomas  or  degrees  earned  abroad,  an  equivalence 
therefor.  The  term  of  study  required  is  one  year,  except  in  the 
Universities  of  Caen  and  Lille  where  it  is  two  years.  The  prepara- 
tion and  defence  of  a  thesis,  and  oral  (sometimes  also  written) 
examinations  on  problems  or  subject  matter  indicated  in  advance 
by  the  Faculty.  The  total  fees  for  matriculation  or  "inscriptions," 
examinations,  thesis,  and  diploma  vary  from  i6i  to  380  francs, 
according  to  the  University. 

Doctorat  de  VUniversite,  mention  Medecine.  Conferred  by  the 
Universities  of  Paris,  Alger,  Bordeaux,  Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier, 
Nancy,  Toulouse.  Open  to  foreign  students  only  who  have 
obtained  an  equivalence  of  the  "  baccalaureat  de  I'enseignement 
secondaire."  The  prescribed  course  of  study  of  five  years,  the 
examinations  and  the  fees  are  the  same  as  for  the  corresponding 
degree  conferred  by  the  State.  Those  who  have  already  fulfilled 
abroad  some  of  the  requirements  may  be  given  credit  for  it  in  the 
French  curriculum  ("equivalence  de  scolarite"). 

Doctorat  de  VUniversite,  mention  Sciences.  Conferred  by  the 
Universities  of  Paris,  Aix-Marseille,  Besangon,  Bordeaux,  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancy 
and  Toulouse.     Open  to  both  French  and  foreign  students  who 


PARIS.     THE  LAW  SCHOOL.     FACADE 


PARIS.     THE  LAW  SCHOOL.     READING  ROOM 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  405 

present  two  or  three  "certificats  d'etudes  superieures  de  sciences 
d'Etat,"  or  other  degrees  and  diplomas  judged  by  the  Faculty  to 
be  equivalent.  The  preparation  and  defence  of  a  thesis  and  oral 
(sometimes  written)  examinations  on  problems  or  subject  matter 
indicated  in  advance  by  the  Faculty.  The  term  of  study  required 
is  one  year,  except  at  the  University  of  Montpellier  where  it  is 
two  years.  The  fees  for  matriculation,  examinations,  thesis,  and 
diploma  vary  from  80  to  180  francs.  In  addition  to  this,  labora- 
tory fees  run  from  200  to  800  francs,  according  to  the  line  of 
work. 

Doctoral  de  I'Universite,  mention  Lettres.  Conferred  by  the 
Universities  of  Paris,  Aix-Marseille,  Besanfon,  Bordeaux,  Caen, 
Clermont-Ferrand,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyon,  Montpellier, 
Nancy,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  Toulouse.  Open  to  any  French  or 
foreign  student  who  presents  the  "licence  es  lettres,"  or  other 
degrees  or  diplomas  judged  equivalent  or  otherwise  sufficient  by 
the  Faculty.  The  required  term  of  study  is  usually  two  years, 
one  of  which  must  be  passed  in  residence  at  the  University  where 
the  degree  is  sought,  while  the  other  may  be  spent  in  another 
French  university,  in  some  cases  even  in  a  foreign  university. 
However,  Bordeaux,  Montpelher,  Nancy,  and  Toulouse  require 
only  one  year  of  study,  while  Rennes  requires  three.  The  prepara- 
tion and  defence  of  a  thesis  and  an  oral  examination  on  problems 
or  subject  matter  indicated  in  advance  by  the  Faculty.  The 
fees  for  matriculation,  examination,  thesis,  and  diploma  vary  from 
100  to  200  francs. 

Doctoral  de  VUniversite,  mention  Pharmacie.  Open  to  French 
students  who  present  the^diplome  de  pharmacien,"and  to  foreign 
students  who  obtain  by  examination  the  "certificat  d'etudes  de 
pharmacie  chimique  et  de  toxicologic"  and  the  "certificat  de 
pharmacie  galenique  et  de  matiere  medicale,"  or  who  present 
degrees  and  diplomas  recognized  as  equivalent.  The  term  of 
study  is  one  year.  Preparation  and  defence  of  a  thesis.  The 
fees  for  matriculation,  laboratory,  examination,  and  thesis  vary  from 
530  to  730  francs, 

(2)  ^^Certificats  d^ etudes  Frangaises,"  "Diplome  d'etudes  fran- 
qaises"  etc.  Open  only  to  foreigners,  without  any  requirement  as 
to  degrees  or  titles.  The  term  of  study  is  usually  one  semester  at 
least.  The  fees  are  usually  30  francs  for  matriculation  and  from 
20  to  50  francs  for  the  examination.    All  the  French  Universities 


4o6  APPENDIX  II 

(except  Aix  and  Alger)  offer  courses  leading  to  these  certificates. 
At  a  number  of  Universities  summer  schools  during  July  and 
August  have  been  organized  in  connection  with  the  elaborate 
courses  in  French  language,  literature,  and  phonetics  established 
by  the  Alliance  franjaise.  Work  done  in  these  summer  courses  is 
often  accepted  in  at  least  partial  fulment  of  the  requirements  for 
these  certificates.  For  full  information  concerning  these  summer 
courses  in  the  Universities  and  in  the  various  schools  under  the 
direction  of  the  Alliance  frangaise,  consult  the  "  Guide  illustre  de 
I'etudiant  etranger  a  Paris  et  en  France,"  published  under  the 
direction  of  the  AlUance  at  the  Librairie  Larousse,  and  the  "Bulle- 
tin officiel  de  la  Federation  de  FAlliance  frangaise  aux  Etats-Unis 
et  au  Canada,"  1420  Broadway,  New  York  City. 


III.    Admission  to  the  Universities. 

The  student  who  seeks  to  enter  any  French  University  may  be 
admitted:  (i)  simply  as  a  matriculated  student;  (2)  as  a  student 
enrolled  (inscrit)  as  a  candidate  for  a  definite  degree  or  diploma; 
(3)  as  a  pupil  (eleve)  in  an  Institute  or  School  attached  to  a  Uni- 
versity. 

Since  the  conditions  of  admission  to  the  Institutes  and  Schools 
vary  somewhat  from  one  to  another,  the  necessary  indications 
pertaining  thereto  should  be  sought  in  the  Handbook  of  the 
Office  National  des  Universites  et  Ecoles  frangaises,  or  in  the 
"Livrets  de  I'Etudiant"  issued  by  the  Universities  themselves. 

Since,  on  the  contrary,  the  regulations  governing  matriculation 
and  enrollment  (inscription)  are  common  to  all  the  Universities, 
these  have  been  grouped  together  in  the  following  description. 

I.    Matriculation. 

The  necessary,  but  adequate,  condition  for  being  admitted  to 
follow  the  courses  and  discussions  of  a  University,  to  use  its 
libraries,  collections,  and  instruments  of  work  of  every  sort,  is 
Matriculation,  which  impHes  being  registered  in  due  form  on  the 
books  of  a  Faculty  or  School  of  the  University. 

Matriculation  makes  one  a  student  and  confers  the  right  to 
follow  the  instruction,  not  only  of  the  Faculty  or  School  in  which 
one  is  matriculated,  but  also  of  the  various  Faculties  or  Schools 
which  make  up  the  University. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  407 

It  is  the  only  formality  required  of  students,  and  particularly 
foreign  students,  who  seek  at  the  French  Universities  only  a 
cultural  education,  without  working  for  a  degree  or  diploma. 
However,  for  certain  degrees  conferred  by  the  Universities  them- 
selves (which  will  be  indicated  further  on),  mere  matriculation 
confers  the  right  to  take  the  examinations  leading  to  these 
degrees. 

The  student  may  matriculate  at  any  time.  Matriculation 
holds  good  for  the  entire  year,  but  must  be  renewed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  new  academic  year. 

If,  during  the  course  of  the  year,  the  matriculated  student 
wishes  to  change  to  another  University,  he  must  matriculate  again 
in  the  new  University. 

Matriculation  Fees.  The  uniform  fee  for  matriculation  is 
thirty  francs  a  year.  However,  if  the  student  pursues  laboratory 
work,  he  must  not  only  obtain  the  consent  of  the  director  of  the 
laboratory,  but  also  pay  the  special  laboratory  fees.  These  fees 
vary  from  Faculty  to  Faculty  and  from  laboratory  to  laboratory. 
Information  as  to  the  amount  of  these  fees  can  be  obtained  by 
applying  directly  to  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Faculty  or 
School. 

Necessary  Formalities.  Matriculation  must  be  sought  by  the 
candidate  in  person  at  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Faculty  or 
School  whose  instruction  he  wishes  to  follow.  It  cannot  be  sought 
by  correspondence  or  by  proxy. 

The  student  who  wishes  to  matriculate  must  estabhsh  his 
identity  and  prove  that  his  previous  studies  qualify  him  to  follow 
with  profit  the  instruction  of  the  Faculty  or  School. 

The  student  from  the  United  States  must  present:  (i)  a  pass- 
port, countersigned  and  sealed  (''vise")  by  the  French  consul  of 
the  region  wheDce  he  comes,  or  an  affidavit  hkewise  certified  by  the 
consul;  (2)  a  diploma  or  certificate  attesting  his  previous  studies 
likewise  certified  by  the  consul;  (3)  a  receipt  indicating  that  he  has 
declared  a  residence  in  France  ("declaration  de  residence").^ 
The  documents  indicated  under  i  and  2  should  be  accompanied 
by  a  certified  translation  either  by  the  French  consul  who  counter- 
signs them  or  by  a  legalized  translator  in  France. 

^  This  declaration  must  be  made  by  the  foreign  student  within  fifteen  days 
after  his  arrival  in  France.  It  is  made  in  Paris  at  the  "Prefecture  de  Police, 
Bureau  des  Etrangers,"  i,  rue  de  Lutece,  and,  in  the  provinces,  at  the  city-hall 
of  each  city.    The  receipt  for  this  declaration  is  delivered  free  of  charge. 


4o8  APPENDIX  II 

In  the  absence  of  any  certificate  or  diploma  of  previous  studies, 
the  right  to  matriculate  may  be  granted  by  the  Dean  or  Director 
to  either  French  or  foreign  students  whose  previous  studies  are  con- 
sidered adequate. 

II.    Enrollments  ("Inscriptions"). 

Enrollment  ("inscription")  is  the  formality  required  of  students 
who  seek  to  obtain  a  degree  or  diploma,  and  especially  a  degree  or 
diploma  conferred  by  the  State. 

It  attests  the  regularity  with  which  the  studies  in  view  of  ob- 
taining a  degree  or  diploma  are  pursued.  Enrollment  must  be 
renewed  every  three  months.  Every  degree  or  diploma  requires 
a  certain  determinate  number  of  enrollments  which  fix  the  minimum 
duration  of  the  required  studies. 

Enrollment  implies  the  right  and  formality  of  matriculation. 
An  enrolled  student  is,  ipso  facto,  matriculated  without  having  to 
pay  the  special  fee  of  matriculation,  and  enjoys  all  the  rights  which 
the  latter  confers. 

Enrollments  must  be  made  at  dates  which  vary  from  Faculty 
to  Faculty,  but  which  are  always  announced  on  the  bulletin 
boards.  The  first  "inscription"  must  be  made  at  the  beginning 
of  the  school  year,  and  at  the  latest  before  the  first  of  December. 

The  student  must  keep  up  his  "inscriptions  "successively,  with- 
out interruption,  at  the  dates  fixed.  In  case  of  delay  or  interrup- 
tion, the  Dean  or  Rector  may,  upon  special  demand  and  for  good 
reasons,  authorize  the  student  to  make  up  the  required  "inscrip- 
tions" which  are  in  arrears  so  that  he  may  continue  his  studies 
under  regular  normal  conditions;  provided  that  in  each  case  the 
delay  does  not  exceed  the  legal  limits. 

Since  the  student  must  enroll  every  three  months,  he  may, 
during  the  course  of  the  school  year,  pass  from  one  University  to 
another,  conserving  all  the  benefits  and  privileges  conferred  by  the 
enrollments  already  made.  In  this  case  he  should  request  the 
Secretary  of  the  Faculty  in  which  he  is  enrolled  to  transfer  his 
record  to  the  Faculty  in  which  he  wishes  to  enroll.  This  transfer 
is  granted  in  all  cases  where  it  is  compatible  with  the  special  condi- 
tions of  residence  required  for  the  degrees  or  diplomas  which 
the  student  seeks. 

Fees  for  ^^ Inscriptions J^  The  fee  for  enrollment  every  three 
months  is  thirty  francs,  to  which  is  added  a  library  fee  of  two  and 
a  half  francs. 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  409 

Enrollment  with  a  view  to  obtaining  any  degree  or  diploma 
requiring  laboratory  work  involves  the  payment  of  special  labora- 
tory fees. 

With  a  view  to  furnishing  preparation  for  certain  diplomas  or 
special  certificates,  the  Universities  have  created  special  instruc- 
tion and  means  of  research,  for  the  use  of  which  special  fees  are 
required. 

The  payment  of  the  fees  of  enrollment  pertaining  to  a  certain 
degree  or  diploma  does  not  release  one  from  paying  the  fees  of 
enrollment  pertaining  to  any  other  degree  or  diploma  sought  at 
the  same  time.  The  only  exception  made  concerns  students 
enrolled  for  the  "licence  en  droit "  who  may  also  be  enrolled  for  the 
"licence  es  lettres"  without  having  to  pay  fees  anew.  In  like 
manner  the  students  enrolled  for  the  "doctorat  en  medecine"  or 
the  "diplome  de  pharmacien"  may  be  enrolled  without  further 
charge  at  the  Faculty  of  Science  for  the  "certificats  d'etudes 
superieures;"  but  the  reciprocal  favor  is  not  granted  to  students 
enrolled  for  the  "licence  es  lettres"  or  the  "certificat  d'etudes 
superieures  de  sciences." 

Enrollment  must  be  requested  by  the  candidate  in  person  at  the 
office  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Faculty  or  School  in  which  he  wishes 
to  begin  or  pursue  his  studies.  It  cannot  be  sought  by  corre- 
spondence or  by  proxy. 

Formalities  Required  for  ^^  Inscription^'  In  order  to  enroll  for 
the  first  time,  the  French  or  foreign  student  must,  on  the  one  hand, 
establish  his  identity,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  prove  that  his 
previous  studies  have  prepared  him  to  undertake  the  work  which 
will  permit  him  to  obtain  the  degree  or  diploma  which  he  seeks. 

The  student  from  the  United  States  who  is  beginning  his  studies 
in  France  ought  to  present,  when  enrolling  for  the  first  time: 
(i)  a  passport  countersigned  and  sealed  ("vise")  by  the  French 
consul  of  the  region  from  which  he  comes,  or  an  affidavit  likewise 
certified  by  the  French  consul;  (2)  the  "diplome  de  bachelier  fran- 
gais"  ^  or,  in  lieu  of  this,  a  degree  or  diploma  which  has  been 
declared  equivalent  to,  or  a  substitute  for,  the  "diplome  de  bache- 
lier;" (3)  a  receipt  indicating  that  he  has  declared  a  residence  in 
France. 

^  The  "dipl6me  de  bachelier  franf ais"  or  "baccalaureat  de  renseignement 
secondaire"  is  the  certificate  delivered  to  the  French  student  who  has  passed 
a  difficult  State  examination  at  the  completion  of  his  studies  in  the  secondary 
school  system.  In  general  function  it  corresponds  to  our  High-school  or  prep- 
aratory school  diploma;  but  it  represents  a  much  more  arduous  course  of  study. 


4IO  APPENDIX  II 

IV.     Credit  Allowable  for  Equivalent  Degrees 
OF  Foreign  Institutions. 

The  foreign  student  who  seeks  to  continue  in  France  the 
advanced  studies  which  he  has  begun  in  his  own  country,  and  which 
are  akeady  certified  by  examinations  and  by  the  possession  of  a 
diploma,  may  obtain  credit  for  this  advanced  work.  He  may  be 
granted,  not  only  an  equivalence  of  the  French  degree  of  "bac- 
calaureat"  or  of  any  other  degree,  but  also  a  reduction  of  the 
scholastic  requirements,  such  as  a  reduction  of  the  number  of 
"inscriptions"  required  and  exemption  from  certain  examinations. 

To  make  it  possible  for  foreign  students  to  begin  their  higher 
studies  in  French  Universities  or  to  continue  in  France  the  ad- 
vanced work  they  have  already  begun  in  their  own  country,  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction  has  decreed  that  equivalences 
may  be  estabhshed  between  French  degrees  and  diplomas  and 
corresponding  foreign  degrees  and  diplomas. 

The  establishment  of  an  equivalence  is  most  often  requested 
in  the  case  of  the  French  "baccalaureat  de  I'enseignement  secon- 
daire"  or  "diplome  de  bacheher,"  which  is  required  in  order  to 
enter  upon  studies  in  law,  medicine,  science,  letters  and  pharmacy, 
in  the  corresponding  Faculties  or  Schools  of  the  Universities;  but, 
to  foreigners  who  have  already  completed  in  their  native  country 
higher  studies  certified  by  degrees  and  diplomas,  may  also  be 
granted  an  equivalence  of  the  "licence  en  droit,"  "licence  es 
sciences,"  and  " licence  es  lettres,"  in  order  to  enroll  as  candidates 
for  the  "doctorat  en  droit,"  the  "doctorat  es  sciences,"  and  the 
"doctorat  es  lettres"  respectively. 

In  no  case,  however,  does  the  establishment  of  an  equivalence 
confer  the  right  to  the  corresponding  degree.  For  example,  even 
in  case  a  foreign  student  has  had  some  degree  or  diploma  obtained 
in  his  own  country  declared  equivalent  to  the  French  "bacca- 
laureat,"  he  does  not  become  thereby  a  French  "bachelier,"  nor 
can  he  assume  this  title;  he  acquires  only  the  eligibility  to  the  next 
higher  diploma  or  degree  which  the  equivalence  previously  granted 
has  made  it  possible  for  him  to  seek  and  obtain  after  passing  the 
required  examinations. 

In  determining  just  what  diplomas,  titles,  and  degrees  shall  be 
equivalent  in  the  case  of  students  from  the  United  States,  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction  has  proposed  to  recognize  as  a  matter 
of  course  the  first-rank  institutions  as  graded  by  the  Carnegie 


INSTITUTIONS,  DEGREES,  ETC.  411 

Foundation.^  Any  American  student  presenting  one  of  these  di- 
plomas will  be  admitted  as  of  course  in  full  standing  to  any  French 
University.  Diplomas  from  other  institutions  require  special 
action  in  each  case,  but  may  on  the  facts  of  the  case  be  sufficient . 

Interpreted  in  terms  of  the  equivalences  most  likely  to  be 
sought  by  students  from  the  United  States,  this  would  seem 
to  signify  that  the  degrees  and  diplomas  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts,  Bachelor  of  Laws,  and  Bachelor  of  Science  of  approved 
American  colleges  and  universities  will  thus  admit  to  candidacy, 
presumably  for  the  "doctorates  let  tres,"  the  "doctorat  en  droit," 
and  the  "doctorat  es  sciences,"  conferred  hy  the  State,  and  cer- 
tainly for  the  three  doctor's  degrees  conferred  hy  the  Universities 
in  Law,  Science,  and  Letters.  They  do  not  admit  to  regular  en- 
rollment for  the  "doctorat  en  medecine,"  "pharmacien,"  and 
*' chirurgien-dentiste  "  conferred  6y //ze  6*^/6;  and,  for  the  doctorate 
conferred  hy  the  Universities  in  Medicine  and  Pharmacy,  no  Ameri- 
can substitute  for  the  French  prehminary  degrees  can  be  accepted 
without  special  permission  from  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. 

Fees.  Formerly,  whenever  an  equivalence  was  established 
between  a  French  and  a  foreign  degree  or  diploma,  the  student 
benefiting  thereby  was  required  to  pay  all  the  fees  pertaining  to 
the  original  French  degree  or  diploma  for  which  an  equivalence 
had  been  granted.  Sometimes  these  fees  amoimted  to  as  much 
as  twelve  hundred  francs.  By  a  new  decree  of  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction,  dated  January  18,  1916,  this  old  requirement 
is  abolished.  Foreign  students  are  now  required  to  pay  only  the 
fees  corresponding  to  the  studies  actuaUy  undertaken  and  to  the 
degrees  actually  obtained. 

Admission  to  Advanced  Standing  ("Equivalences  de 
scolarite"). — ^Admission  to  advanced  standing  aims  at  giving  such 
recognition  to  the  studies  already  completed  in  a  foreign  country  in 
any  special  line  of  work  that  foreigners  may  continue  in  France 
the  studies  which  they  have  begun  elsewhere.  It  may  assume 
the  form  either  of  a  reduction  of  the  term  of  residence  required,  or 
the  privilege  of  making  up  all  at  once  as  many  "inscriptions"  as 
the  duration  and  natiure  of  the  studies  already  completed  may 
warrant,  or  exemption  from  certain  examinations. 

^  A  list  of  119  institutions,  representing  those  whose  B.  A.  or  B.  S.  degrees 
stand  highest  in  grade,  was  printed  in  the  1913  Proceedings  of  the  Association 
of  American  Universities. 


412  APPENDIX  II 

Requests  for  admission  to  advanced  standing  should  be  ad- 
dressed to  the  Minister  of  Pubhc  Instruction  on  a  special  sheet  of 
paper,  bearing  stamps  to  the  value  of  sixty  centimes.  They  must 
be  accompanied  by  all  documents  which  bear  upon  or  support  the 
request.  These  documents  must  be  translated  into  French  by  a 
legalized  translator.  Finally,  they  must  be  delivered  to  the  office 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Faculty  in  which  the  student  wishes  to 
enroll. 


Appendix  III 


Appendix  Iir 

Practical  Suggestions  to  the  Intending 
Graduate  Student 


In  the  preceding  Appendix  the  attempt  has  been  made  simply 
to  set  forth  as  concisely  and  exactly  as  possible  the  technicalities 
involved  in  entering  upon  the  courses  and  obtaining  the  degrees 
of  the  French  institutions  of  higher  education.  However,  a  state- 
ment of  these  technicalities  is  not  likely  to  answer  all  the  questions 
which  may  arise  in  the  mind  of  the  American  student  who  intends 
to  study  in  France.  Consequently,  it  has  seemed  wise  to  devote 
a  few  words  of  explanation  to  some  of  the  other  problems  which  the 
student  is  almost  sure  to  encounter:  such  problems  as  the  choice  of 
a  university;  the  opportunities  for  association  with  other  students 
in  clubs  and  societies;  the  facilities  for  acquiring  the  French  lan- 
guage; summer  schools;  the  French  doctor's  degree  conferred  by  the 
Universities;  the  doctor's  thesis;  the  relation  of  the  French  degrees 
conferred  by  the  State  to  our  American  degrees;  general  living  ex- 
penses; etc. 

Some  of  these  subjects  have  been  adequately  treated  in  various 
works,  setting  forth  the  opportunities  and  advantages  of  study  in 
France.  Aside  from  the  handbook  of  the  "Ofl&ce  national  des 
Universites,"  the  ''Livrets  de  I'etudiant,"  and  the  two  booklets 
published  by  the  Alliance  Frang aise  already  mentioned  in  Appen- 
dix II,  the  student  is  advised  to  consult  the  following  books  and 
articles:  "The  Universities  of  France:  A  Guide  for  American 
Students,"  published  in  1899  by  the  Franco-American  Committee, 
87,  boulevard  Saint  Michel,  Paris;  "French  University  Degrees," 
published  by  the  "Comite  de  patronage  des  etudiants  etrangers," 
at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  2nd  edition,  1910;  "Conseil  aux 
Americains"  by  Professor  Robert  Dupouey,  in  the  University  of 
California  Chronicle,  Vol.  IX,  No.  4,  1907;  this  latter  is  a  sum- 
mary in  English  of  a  longer  treatment  in  French  which  appeared  in 

^[Prepared  by  Professor  C.  B.  Vibbert,  of  the  University  of  Michigan. — Ed.] 

415 


4i6  APPENDIX  III 

1907  in  the  "Echo  des  Deux  Mondes,"  a  French  periodical  pub- 
Hshed  in  Chicago. 

Choice  of  a  University. — ^The  student  who  intends  to  study  in 
France  quite  naturally  plans  at  least  to  begin  his  sojourn  in  Paris. 
And  rightly  so  if  he  takes  into  accountonly  the  wealth  of  intellectual 
opportunities  offered  by  the  capital.  However,  few  American 
students  are  prepared,  on  first  arriving  in  France,  to  take  immediate 
advantage  of  these  opportunities.  Consequently,  should  he  raise 
the  pertinent  questions  as  to  the  most  expeditious  and  normal 
manner  of  orienting  himself  in  French  life,  of  acquiring  that  perfect 
faciHtyin  the  use  of  the  language  which  all  effective  university 
work  requires,  of  obtaining  a  correct  and  sympathetic  understanding 
of  French  institutions,  manners,  customs,  and  ideals,  he  will  decide 
to  take  up  his  residence  at  first  in  a  provincial  town  and  to  enter 
upon  his  work  in  a  provincial  university,  only  settling  in  Paris 
after  he  has  become  fully  oriented  in  France.  In  this  decision  he 
will  find  that  nearly  all  Americans  who  have  pursued  serious  studies 
in  France,  as  well  as  French  educators  themselves,  will  concur. 

The  claims  of  the  provincial  university  have  been  very  forcibly 
stated  by  M.  Steeg,  a  former  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  in 
these  words:  "There  is  every  advantage  for  the  foreign  student 
entering  into  French  life  to  begin  his  sojourn  elsewhere  than  in 
Paris.  It  is  so  much  easier  for  him  to  adapt  himself  to  his  environ- 
ment. He  will  be  less  likely  to  be  distracted  from  his  studies.  He 
will  come  into  more  direct  contact  with  his  instructors  and  with 
his  fellow  students.  Especially  will  he  find  that  he  can  carry  on  his 
laboratory  work  and  all  sorts  of  practical  work  to  better  advantage. 
A  foreigner  who  goes  directly  to  Paris  to  study  loses  a  great  deal 
of  time  simply  in  becoming  oriented  in  the  metropolis  and  even 
in  the  Faculties.  The  residence  in  the  capital  is  genuinely  profi- 
table only  for  those  who  settle  there  for  the  latter  part  of  their 
sojourn  in  France." 

And  is  not  this  counsel  essentially  what  we  would  give  to  a 
foreign  student  coming  to  this  country  to  study?  Scarcely  would 
we  recommend  him  to  settle  in  New  York  City,  attempt  to  acquire 
there  the  English  language,  seek  to  adapt  himself  to  the  complex 
life  of  our  cosmopolitan  city,  and  judge  of  our  institutions,  customs, 
manners,  and  ideals  in  the  light  thereof.  To  the  unoriented  foreign 
student,  Paris  presents  essentially  the  same  limitations  as  New  York 
City.     The  fear,  sometimes  expressed  by  students,  lest  they  ac- 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  .  417 

quire  some  pronunciation  other  than  the  correct  Parisian  French, 
is  scarcely  well  grounded.  The  French  spoken  in  university  circles 
outside  of  Paris  is  apt  to  be  quite  as  correct  as  that  heard  in  the 
capital  itself,  much  more  correct  than  the  greater  part  of  the  or- 
dinary French  of  the  Paris  streets. 

Aside  from  offering  a  greater  simplicity,  geniality,  and  intimacy 
of  life  than  that  of  Paris,  some  of  the  provincial  universities  pre- 
sent great  natural  beauty  of  environment  and  the  most  varied 
attractions  of  out-of-door  life.  Universities  like  Grenoble,  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Montpellier,  Toulouse,  and  Besanfon  rival  in  the 
beauty  of  their  surroundings  and  picturesqueness  Heidelberg  or 
lena,  Oxford  or  St.  Andrews.  Within  recent  years  out-of-door 
sports  have  undergone  a  marked  revival  in  the  provincial  univer- 
sities, as  is  evidenced  by  the  \\ide-spread  organization  of  clubs  for 
the  encouragement  of  sports.  Some  of  these  students'  athletic 
clubs,  as  the  Bordeaux-Etudiants-Club  and  the  Stade  toulousian, 
have  well-equipped  club-houses  and  athletic  fields. 

The  University  Organizations  Designed  to  Aid  Foreigners, 
Students' Clubs  and  Associations,  etc. — "Comites  de  patronage 
pour  les  etudiants  etr angers." — Every  French  university  has  a 
Committee  of  patronage  for  foreign  students  which  stands  ever 
ready  to  offer  any  advice  or  information  with  reference  to 
university  studies,  instruction  in  the  French  language,  general 
conditions  of  Hving  (board,  lodgings,  pension  in  private  families, 
etc.),  or  other  difficulties  which  may  confront  the  foreign  student. 
After  determining  to  settle  at  a  particular  university,  the 
American  student  should  communicate  immediately  with  the 
local  "Comite  de  patronage."  The  office  of  the  Committee 
is  usually  located  in  one  of  the  university  buildings  and  is  easily 
accessible. 

^^ Consuls  universitaires." — Some  of  the  universities  have  ap- 
pointed so-called  "Consuls  universitaires,"  each  of  whom  acts  as 
the  director  of  studies  and  general  counsellor  of  all  the  students 
who  speak  the  same  language.  The  University  of  Bordeaux 
has  been  especially  successful  in  the  development  of  this  system. 
The  student  should  feel  quite  free  to  consult  his  University  Coun- 
sellor on  any  difficulties  which  arise. 

^'Associations  generates  des  etudiants  et  etudiantes." — Every 
French  university  now  has  its  general  Students'  Association  for 
men,  similar  in  its  organization,  aims,  and  advantages  offered  to  our 


4i8  APPENDIX  III 

well-known  students'  clubs,  such  as  the  Harvard  Union  at  Cam- 
bridge, Houston  Hall  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
Reynolds  Club  at  the  University  of  Chicago.  Some  of  these 
"Associations  generales"  have  sumptuous  club-houses  and  excel- 
lent faciUties  of  every  kind.  The  most  perfectly  equipped  is  the 
new  home  of  the  "Association  generale"  of  Paris,  located  at  Nos. 
13  and  15,  rue  de  la  Bucherie,  at  the  very  center  of  the  old  Latin 
Quarter.  It  offers  comfortable  lounging,  reading  and  study  rooms. 
The  library  numbers  more  than  40,000  volumes,  grouped  together 
in  special  sections  for  the  convenience  of  the  students  of  the  different 
Faculties  and  Schools.  All  the  principal  newspapers  and  periodi- 
cals, literary,  scientific  and  general,  whether  French  or  foreign,  are 
kept  on  file.  Its  members  enjoy  certain  concessions,  such  as 
reductions  in  the  price  of  theatre  tickets,  books,  periodicals,  and 
even  of  many  of  the  ordinary  necessities  of  life.  In  cases  of  neces- 
sity the  Association  also  aids  its  members  by  loaning  them  money 
and  obtaining  for  them  medical  attention.  It  also  furnishes 
French  teachers,  translators,  and  companions  for  foreign  students, 
and  runs  an  employment  bureau  for  the  benefit  of  students  who 
must  needs  help  themselves. 

Any  student,  whether  a  Frenchman  or  a  foreigner,  who  is  reg- 
ularly enrolled  in  one  of  the  Faculties  of  the  University  or  in  one  of 
the  other  institutions  of  higher  learning  in  Paris,  is  ehgible  for 
membership.    The  annual  dues  are  18  francs. 

Though  the  Students'  Associations  in  the  provincial  universi- 
ties cannot  always  offer  as  elaborately  equipped  club-houses  as 
those  found  in  Paris,  still  they  are  the  active  centers  of  the  student 
life.  The  American  student,  wherever  he  may  settle,  should  iden- 
tify himself  with  the  local  Association  and  profit  by  the  advantages 
it  offers,  not  only  in  the  way  of  good-fellowship,  but  also  in  co- 
operating with  his  fellow-students  in  the  common  intellectual  and 
moral  ideals  of  the  University.  In  this  way  he  will  best  enter  into 
and  appreciate  the  real  life  of  France. 

Associations  for  women  students,  similarly  organized  and 
equipped,  have  been  established  in  most  of  the  French  universities. 
The  "Association  generale  des  etudiantes"  of  the  University  of 
Paris  is  comforably  established  at  No.  55,  rue  Saint- Jacques. 
In  addition  to  offering  parlors,  reading  rooms,  a  general  information 
bureau,  an  employment  bureau  and  free  medical  service,  it  has 
established  a  Women's  Co-operative  Restaurant  where  meals  and 
afternoon  tea  are  served  to  members  at  very  moderate  prices. 


LYON.     THE  UNIVERSITY.     MAIN  BUILDING 


TOULOUSE.    THE  FACULTY  OF  SCIENCES 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  419 

Clubs  with  a  religious  purpose. — There  are  also  a  number  of  other 
Students'  Clubs,  especially  in  Paris,  which  not  only  offer  many  of 
the  same  advantages  as  the  General  Associations  of  Students,  but 
are  also  organized  with  reference  to  certain  specific  ends  and  offer 
special  opportunities  to  students  interested  in  these  ends.  Such 
are  the  "Association  generale  des Etudiants  CathoUques  de  Paris," 
18,  rue  du  Luxembourg,  open  to  all  Catholic  men  enrolled  in  the 
higher  schools  of  Paris,  and  the  "Association  des  Etudiants 
Protestants,"  46,  rue  de  Vaugirard,  open  similarly  to  all  Protestant 
men.  There  is  also  a  club  for  women,  organized  on  similar  lines, 
the  "Association  chretienne  d'Etudiantes,"  67,  rue  Saint- Jacques, 
which  is  open  to  any  woman  student  without  any  restriction  as  to 
faith  or  creed. 

American  Students^  Clubs. — ^There  are  in  Paris  a  number  of 
clubs,  which  have  been  organized  primarily  by  generous  Americans, 
and  provide  admirably  for  the  interests  of  American  women 
students.  Among  these  are  the  Students'  Hostel,  93,  boulevard 
Saint-Michel,  which  has  a  club-house  admirably  equipped  in  every 
respect,  including  an  infirmary;  the  American  Girls'  Club,  rue 
de  Chevreuse,  very  comfortably  situated  in  a  retired  street  and 
provided  with  a  beautiful  garden;  and  Trinity  Lodge,  rue  du  Val-de 
Grace,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Anglican  Church,  very  pleasantly 
installed.  All  these  clubs  offer  homes  to  a  limited  number  of 
American  and  English  girls,  as  well  as  provide  a  complete  social 
center  with  all  the  necessary  equipment  for  a  much  larger  number. 

Hitherto  there  have  been  no  similar  clubs,  adequately  equipped 
for  American  men  students.  The  old  American  Art  Association, 
which  played  such  an  important  role  in  the  life  of  American  students 
in  Paris  during  so  many  years,  has  been  allowed  to  die.  But  at 
the  time  of  going  to  press  a  "Maison  des  Etudiants  Americains  "  is 
being  organized.^ 

^  The  following  program  of  assistance  to  American  students  was  unanimously 
adopted  in  1916,  by  the  Council  of  the  University  of  Paris,  on  recommendation 
of  a  Committee  of  which  M.  Emile  Durkheim  was  chairman: 

"i.  Preparation  of  a  book  describing  the  several  institutions  of  higher 
education  in  Paris,  their  organization,  resources,  and  general  methods;  to  be 
illustrated  with  numerous  photographs;  to  be  published  in  the  French  language 
and  distributed  to  American  universities. 

"2.  Issuance  of  a  university  booklet  annually,  containing  the  information 
that  would  be  needed  by  American  students. 

"3.  Appointment  of  one  or  more  professors  in  each  important  American 
imiversity  as  a  committee  of  correspondence  with  the  University  of  Paris. 

"4.     Establishment  of  courses  in  spoken  French  in  American  imiversities. 


420  APPENDIX  m 

Instruction  in  French  Language  and  Literature. — No  people 
have  made  such  earnest  and  systematic  efiforts  to  ensure  the  cor- 
rect teaching  of  their  language  and  literature  to  foreigners  as 
have  the  French  in  recent  years.  In  this  movement  the  AUiance 
Franyaise,  with  headquarters  at  i86,  boulevard  Saint-Germain, 
Paris,  has  taken  the  lead.  In  co-operation  with  the  higher  educa- 
tional authorities,  the  Alliance  not  only  offers  courses  at  its  head- 
quarters in  Paris  during  the  months  of  July  and  August,  but  also 
has  arranged  similar  vacation  courses  either  under  its  immediate 
direction  or  in  connection  with  the  Universities  during  the  whole  or 
a  portion  of  the  period  from  July  i  to  October  31, 

Vacation  courses  are  offered  by  the  Universities  of  Besanfon, 
Bordeaux,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille  (at  Boulogne-sur-Mer),  Lyon, 
Nancy,  Poitiers  (at  the  "Institut  d'etudesde  Touraine"  at  Tours), 
and  Rennes  (at  Saint-Malo). 

Vacation  courses  under  the  direction  of  the  Alliance  Franjaise 
are  also  offered  at  Villerville,  Lisieux,  Bayeux,  Marseille  (at  the 
Institut  moderne),  Versailles  (at  the  Lycee  for  girls),  and  Saint- 
Valery-en-Caux. 

Special  courses  in  French  for  foreigners  during  the  regular  school 
year,  usually  extending  from  the  first  of  November  till  the  end  of 
May,  have  been  organized  in  all  the  French  universities  (except 
Aix,  Alger  and  Clermont). 

Several  private  schools  in  Paris  also  offer  excellent  instruction 
in  French  during  both  the  regular  school  year  and  the  vacation,  and 
even  coach  and  prepare  students  for  the  examinations  at  the 
Sorbonne  for  the  "Certificats  d'etudes  franfaises"  and  other 
diplomas.  Such  schools  are  the  "Guilde  Internationale,"  6,  rue 
de  la  Sorbonne;  the  "Institut  Saint-Germain,"  rue  des  Ecoles; 
and  others. 

For  a  complete  detailed  description  of  all  these  vacation  and 
regular  courses  in  French  as  given  from  year  to  year,  consult  the 
two  booklets,  pubUshed  annually  by  the  Alliance  Frangaise,  already 

"5.  Preparation  of  a  list  of  boarding  houses  in  Paris,  carefully  supervised 
by  a  university  committee,  for  American  students,  both  men  and  women. 

"  6.  Organization  of  committees  to  receive  the  student  on  arrival  and  assist 
him  in  the  prosecution  of  his  studies. 

"7.  Establishment  of  an  American  club  or  home,  where  American  students 
may  meet  and  make  acquaintance  with  each  other  and  with  the  professors." 

Pursuant  to  the  last-quoted  resolution,  plans  are  going  forward  for  a  Maison 
des  fitudiants  Americains.  Professor  Barrett  Wendell,  of  Harvard  University, 
formerly  exchange  professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  is  the  American  Chairman;  the 
Honorary  Councillors  include  the  presidents  of  several  American  universities. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  421 

referred  to:  "Guide  illustre  de  I'etudiant  etranger  a  Paris  et  en 
France"  and  the  "Bulletin  of&ciel  de  la  Federation  del'Alliance 
Franfaise  aux  Etats-Unis  et  au  Canada." 

Responsible  and  capable  private  teachers  in  French  can  always 
be  obtained  on  the  recommendation  of  the  various  "Comites  de 
patronage,"  the  official  bureau  of  information,  or  through  the 
various  students'  clubs. 

If  the  American  who  has  had  a  good  grounding  in  French  in  our 
schools,  but  has  not  acquired  perfect  facility  in  the  use  of  it,  will 
go  to  France  at  the  beginning  of  July,  will  settle  down  at  a  provin- 
cial university  where  vacation  courses  are  offered,  and  will  not  only 
follow  conscientiously  these  courses  but  also  profit  by  the  oppor- 
tunities offered  by  life  in  a  recommended  private  family,  there  is 
is  every  Ukelihood  that  when  the  Universities  open  on  the  first  of 
November,  he  will  be  able  not  only  to  follow  but  also  to  partici- 
pate actively  in  the  courses  offered. 

The  Doctor's  Degree  (in  Law,  Medicine,  Sciences,  Letters 
and  Pharmacy)  conferred  by  the  Universities. — The  "Doctorats 
de  I'universite"  are  of  recent  origin.  Not  until  the  Universities 
were  constituted  as  separate  and  autonomous  bodies  by  the  law  of 
July  10,  1896,  were  they  delegated  the  power  to  establish  and  grant 
degrees  in  their  own  name.  Prior  to  1896,  the  various  Faculties 
and  Schools,  now  constituting  the  sixteen  Universities,  were  inte- 
gral parts  of  the  "Universite  nationale  de  France,"  a  single  uni- 
versity system,  administered  by  a  "Grand  Maitre,"  assisted  by  a 
"Conseil  de  I'Universite;"  this  university  system  was  further  sub- 
divided into  "Academies,"  each  under  the  direction  of  a  "Recteur," 
assisted  by  a  "Conseil  Academique."  All  the  degrees  granted  un- 
der this  old  system  were  degrees  conferred  by  the  State,  usually 
carrying  with  them  the  right  to  practice  some  profession  in  France. 
Not  only  was  the  work  prescribed  for  these  degrees  organized 
almost  exclusively  with  reference  to  the  exigencies  of  professional 
work  in  France;  but  the  crowding  of  the  professions  and  the  conse- 
quent intense  competition  for  positions  made  it  necessary  to  hedge 
about  these  degrees  with  many  restrictions.  The  substitution  of 
school  or  university  work  successfully  completed  in  another  coun- 
try in  the  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  for  these  degrees  was  sel- 
dom permitted.  The  result  was  that  few  Americans  sought  these 
degrees;  for  they  could  not  afford  to  spend  the  time  and  the  money 
to  go  to  France  to  finish  their  secondary  school  education  and  so 


422  APPENDIX  III 

obtain  the  "  baccalaureat  de  I'enseignement  secondaire,"  required 
for  practically  all  the  higher  degrees  conferred  by  the  State. 

No  sooner  were  the  Universities  granted  their  autonomy  in 
1896  than  they  began  to  take  advantage  of  their  newly  conferred 
powers  by  estabhshing  degrees  of  purely  scientific  and  academic 
value,  divorced  from  any  direct  relation  to  the  professions  in  France. 
Among  these  degrees  are  the  various  "doctorats  de  I'universite." 
Though  each  University  is  free  to  determine  for  itself  the  conditions 
required  for  obtaining  these  degrees,  all  have  striven  toward  a 
common  standard,  just  as  have  our  better  institutions  in  giving 
a  fijced  value  to  our  Ph.D.  This  process  of  standardizing  has 
also  been  furthered  by  the  desire  to  make  the  doctor's  degrees, 
conferred  by  the  Universities,  stand  for  the  same  grade  of 
scientific  and  scholarly  achievements  as  those  conferred  by  the 
State. 

Though  the  latter  are  still  open  to  American  and  all  other  foreign 
students  under  the  conditions  indicated  in  Appendix  II,  still,  to 
all  intents  and  purposes,  the  university  degrees  serve  the  same 
function  as  our  own  doctor's  degrees,  and  are  consequently  the 
degrees  which  most  American  graduate  students  in  France  will 
hkely  seek. 

The  Doctor^ s  Thesis  and  Examination. — ^A  thesis  is  required  in 
order  to  obtain  the  Doctor's  degree  in  France,  no  matter  along 
what  line  of  specialization  it  is  sought.  In  general  this  work  cor- 
responds in  scope  to  the  thesis  required  for  our  Ph.D.  Yet  it  is 
often  a  much  more  elaborate  piece  of  work,  amounting  to  a  compre- 
hensive and  exhaustive  monograph  on  the  subject.  No  limit  as  to 
its  length  and  scope  is  laid  down,  as  with  us.  Many  French 
doctorate  theses  have  become  classics  in  their  particular  field  of 
research  and  have  raised  their  authors  to  the  front  rank  of  recog- 
nized scholars. 

The  subject  and  general  plan  of  the  thesis  must  be  submitted 
for  approval  to  the  Faculty  in  which  the  degree  is  sought,  by  a  pro- 
fessor representing  the  special  line  of  work  implied  in  the  thesis. 
When  completed,  it  is  passed  upon  by  a  group  of  specialists  ap- 
pointed by  the  Dean,  and,  if  accepted  by  them,  is  then  approved 
by  the  Dean  himself.  The  "Recteur"  of  the  "Academie"  finally 
passes  upon  it,  and  issues  or  denies  a  permission  to  print  it.  After 
it  is  printed,  the  candidate  is  called  upon  to  support  and  defend  his 
work  in  public  before  an  examining  committee,  usually  composed 
of  six  members. 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  423 

The  defence  of  the  thesis  consitutes  the  first  part  of  the  examina- 
tion. The  second  part  consists  of  an  oral  examination  on  prob- 
lem and  subject  matter,  chosen  by  the  candidate  and  approved  by 
the  Faculty.  The  candidate  usually  makes  a  list  of  the  courses 
he  has  pursued  and  the  allied  subjects  he  has  studied;  he  is  ques- 
tioned on  these  subjects,  which  may  be  chosen  among  the  courses  of 
the  different  Faculties.  If  he  passes  successfully,  he  is  granted  the 
degree  of  Doctor  with  the  mention  of  the  specialty:  ''philosophy," 
if  that  be  the  subject,  on  his  diploma. 

The  Significance  of  French  Degrees  conferred  by  the  State, 
and  their  Relation  to  our  American  Degrees. — ^The  system  of  State 
degrees  and  diplomas  in  France  is  so  intimately  related  to  the  gen- 
eral evolution  of  French  educational  institutions,  and  is  so  unique 
in  many  respects,  that  it  is  difl&cult  to  interpret  it  in  terms  of  any 
other  system.  Since,  however,  the  main  structure  of  the  univer- 
sity system  is  constructed  about  these  degrees,  it  is  especially  im- 
portant for  the  American  student  who  enters  this  system  to  know 
something  about  them. 

Baccalaureat.  On  completing  successfully  his  secondary  school 
work,  at  the  age  of  17  to  19,  the  French  student  receives  the 
"baccalaureat  de  I'enseignement  secondaire"  which  permits  him  to 
enter  any  of  the  Faculties  or  Schools  of  higher  education,  except 
those  admitting  only  on  the  basis  of  a  competitive  examination, 
such  as  the  "Ecole  poly  technique."  The  "baccalaureat"  repre- 
sents, in  general  attainments  in  knowledge,  method  and  tech- 
nique, two  years  or  so  in  advance  of  that  represented  by  the 
diplomas  of  our  best  high  schools  and  preparatory  schools.  In 
particular,  the  "baccalaureat"  stands  for  a  degree  of  specializa- 
tion and  technical  proficiency  as  yet  not  attained  in  our  secondary 
schools. 

Licence.  Most  French  students,  on  entering  the  university, 
enroll  as  candidates  for  the  degree  of  "licence"  in  one  of  the  Facul- 
ties in  which  it  is  conferred.  Law,  Sciences  or  Letters;  or  else  they 
work  to  obtain  the  "Certificate  d'etudes  physiques,  chimiques  et 
naturelles,"  which  is  absolutely  required  for  entrance  on  the  regular 
five-year  course  in  medicine. 

The  "licence  en  droit"  is  absolutely  required  for  admission  to 
the  bar  in  France,  and  confers  that  right.  In  general  function, 
then,  it  corresponds  to  our  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Laws,  except  that 
it  comprehends  also  our  State  bar  examinations. 


424  APPENDIX  III 

The  "licence  es  sciences"  and  the  "licence  es  lettres"  confer 
upon  those  who  hold  them  the  right  to  become  candidates  for  the 
teaching  positions  of  "Charge  de  cours"  in  a  "Lycee"  or  professor 
in  a  "College."  The  "Lycee"  is  a  higher  and  more  completely 
equipped  preparatory  school  than  the  "College."  These  two 
degrees  correspond  in  a  general  way  to  our  degrees  of  Bachelor 
of  Science  and  Bachelor  of  Arts  respectively.  However,  the 
French  degrees  stand  for  a  very  much  higher  degree  of  speciali- 
zation than  do  ours;  this  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  "Ucence" 
can  only  be  obtained  along  some  one  definite  line  of  work,  as 
Modern  Languages,  Philosophy,  etc.  The  system  of  graduating 
with  honors,  as  it  is  carried  out  at  Harvard  College,  approaches 
most  closely  the  French  scheme  of  specialization.. 

The  "Diplomes  d' etudes  superieures"  ("de  sciences,"  "de 
lettres")  are  even  more  difficult  to  interpret  in  terms  of  our  de- 
grees. In  some  respects  they  correspond  to  the  Master  of  Arts 
degree,  especially  as  it  used  to  be  interpreted  when  it  involved 
the  preparation  of  a  thesis  on  a  subject  approved  by  the  Faculty. 
The  preparation  of  the  thesis  is  the  main  requirement  for  these 
French  degrees;  but  the  thesis  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  origi- 
nal research  required  for  the  Doctor's  thesis  but  rather  implies  well- 
grounded  information  and  erudition.  The  candidate  usually 
spends  about  a  year  in  preparation  for  the  degree;  but  no  formal 
requirements  are  laid  down.  Since  1904  all  candidates  for  the 
"Agregation"  are  absolutely  required  to  present  this  degree  along 
with  the  "licence." 

"Agrege."  As  aspecialmeans  of  determining  the  fitness  and  of 
choosing  the  candidates  for  regular  professorships  in  the  "Lycees" 
and  for  teaching  positions  other  than  professorships  in  the  Univer- 
sities, the  French  educational  authorities  established  as  early  as 
1825,  competitive  examinations,  the  so-called  "agregations  de 
I'enseignement  secondaire"  in  lettres  and  the  sciences.  A  certain 
number  of  candidates  along  each  line  of  specialization  who  stand 
highest  in  these  examinations  are  accorded  the  title  of  "agrege" 
and  receive  appointments  to  the  teaching  positions  which  are  open. 
About  the  preparation  for  this  degree  a  very  considerable  portion 
of  the  work  in  every  Faculty  of  Science  and  Faculty  of  Letters  is 
organized.  Practically  the  entire  work  of  the  two  higher  normal 
schools  for  men  and  women  ("Ecole  normale  superieure"  and 
"Ecole  normale  superieure  d'enseignement  secondaire  des  jeunes 
Filles")  is  organized   in  preparation    for   these    "agregations." 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  425 

The  "  agregations "  are  naturally  not  open  to  foreigners,  except 
under  very  special  conditions.  No  one  would  likely  seek  the  title 
who  did  not  desire  to  enter  the  teaching  profession  in  France.  The 
only  American  title  which  in  any  respect  corresponds  to  the  title 
of  "agrege"  is  that  conferred  upon  the  recipient  of  a  teacher's 
diploma,  respresenting  some  line  of  specialization.  The  right  to 
teach  in  a  certain  grade  of  school  attaches  to  the  French  as  it  does 
to  the  American  degree. 

The  ^^  Doctoral  de  VEtaf^  is  the  absolutely  required  prerequisite 
for  appointment  to  a  professorship  in  any  French  university.  This 
applies  especially  to  the  degree  as  conferred  in  the  Sciences  and  in 
Letters,  and  accounts  for  the  fact  that  these  degrees  are  generally 
recognized  as  standing  for  a  higher  degree  of  scholarship  than  any 
other  similar  degrees  conferred  in  other  countries  to-day.  The 
Doctor's  degree  in  Medicine  is  absolutely  required  of  every  one 
practicing  medicine  in  French  territory. 

It  will  be  apparent  that  in  general  function  the  French  doctor's 
degrees  in  Lettres,  Sciences,  and  Medecine  correspond  to  our  Ph.  D., 
D.Sc,  and  M.D.  respectively.  The  doctor's  degree  in  Law, 
on  the  contrary,  is  earned  on  the  basis  of  scholastic  work  just  as 
are  the  other  doctor's  degrees,  while  with  us  it  has  been  a  purely 
honorary  degree,  except  for  the  J.D.  recently  adopted  in  some 
universities,  and  theD.C.L.  still  surviving  in  others.  No  Amer- 
ican university,  it  is  believed,  confers  the  doctor's  degree  especially 
in  Pharmacy. 

General  Expenses. — It  is  especially  difficult,  under  the  rapidly 
changing  conditions  of  living  in  France,  to  offer  any  exact  estimate 
of  probable  expenses.  Under  normal  conditions  in  recent  years, 
pension  in  private  families  or  in  family  hotels  in  Paris  could  be 
obtainedfor  150  francs  a  month  and  up.  Pension  includes  board 
and  lodging,  and  sometimes  service.  Lodgings  in  the  Latin  Quarter 
run  from  about  eight  dollars  a  month  up.  In  general,  living  ex- 
penses in  the  provincial  towns  are  considerably  less  than  in  Paris. 

A  student  should  scarcely  go  to  France,  expecting  to  defray 
all  his  expenses  during  a  year,  for  less  than  six  hundred  dollars. 
With  a  thousand  dollars  a  year  at  his  disposal  a  student  should  be 
able  to  live  comfortably. 

All  the  university  fees  for  matriculation,  enrollment,  examina- 
tions, theses,  and  diplomas  have  been  indicated  in  Appendix  II  in 
direct  connection  with  the  discussion  of  these  topics. 


426  APPENDIX  III 

The  principal  French  steamship  Hnes  offer  very  considerable 
reductions  in  fares  to  American  students  who  are  going  to  France 
to  study.  Application  should  be  made  through  the  nearest  French 
consul. 

Important  Suggestions. — Be  sure  to  obtain  an  American  pass- 
port and  have  it  countersigned  and  sealed  ("vise")  by  the  nearest 
French  consul. 

Do  not  forget  to  take  with  you  all  your  diplomas  and  other  docu- 
ments attesting  your  scholastic  work  successfully  completed. 
These  should  also  be  countersigned  and  sealed  by  the  French 
consul  of  your  region;  and  translated  either  under  his  direction  or  by 
a  legalized  translator  in  France. 

On  arriving  in  France,  do  not  fail  to  declare  immediately  your 
residence  there,  either  at  the  city-hall  of  the  town  in  which  you 
settle,  or  in  Paris  at  the  Prefecture  de  Police  (Bureau  des  Etrangers, 
I,  rue  de  Lutece). 


BIBLIOTHEQUE  NATIONALE.     READING  ROOM 


PASTEUR'S  ORIGINAL  LABORATORY 


Index 


PRINCIPAL  SUBJECTS 

UNIVERSITIES 

PERSONAL  NAMES 


Index  of  Principal  Subjects^ 


Page 

Administrative  law.  ...  157,  282 
Agriculture  (chapter  on)  61 
American  archaeology .  ...      25 

religion 316 

Anatomy 175, 199, 331,334 

ANTHROPOLOGY(chapteron)  21 
Anthropology,  palaeonto- 

logical 130.341 

Anthropometry 22, 85 

Archaeology  (chapter  on)  31 
Archaeology,  American.  .  .      25 

Chinese 238 

Hindu 238 

prehistoric 22 

Semitic 244 

Architecture,  history  of .  . .     34 

practical 100 

Art,  History  of  (chapter 

on) 31 

Astronomy  (chapter  on) . .  47 
Astronomical  mathematics.  164 

Astrophysics 47,  276 

Assyrian  religion 316 

Assyriology 241,  246 

Babylonian  rehgion 316 

archaeology 27 

Bacteriology 202, 333 

Biology  (chapter  on) 331 

Biology,  chemical 70 

Botany  (chapter  on) 57 

Byzantine  archaeology ...  .  317 

history 36 

philology 241 

Cartography 107, 116, 121 

Celestial  mechanics 47, 166 

Celtic  philology 223, 254 

rehgion 316 


Page 

Chemistry  (chapter  on) .  .  69 
Chemistry,  physiological .  .    177 

Christian  archaeology 35 

history I35,3i8 

Church  history 135,318 

law i5i;3iS 

Colonial  law  and  adminis- 
tration  153,285 

Comparative  grammar ... .  223 

law 152 

legal  history 151 

religion 314 

Constitutional  law 282 

Criminal  law 156,  292 

Criminology  (chapter  on) .     8 1 

Criminology 156 

Crystallography. 122 

Ecclesiastical  history.  .  135,  318 

law 131,318 

Economics  (chapter  on) ...  279 
Education  (chapter  on) ...  89 
Educational  psychology .  . .   307 

Egyptian  rehgion 314 

Egyptology 31,244 

Electricity 102, 103,  275 

Engineering  (chapter  on)     97 
English  Philology  (chap- 
ter on) 250 

Entomology 340 

Epigraphy 31, 207 

Ethnography 24 

Ethnology 24 

Evolution,  organic 21,331 

Finance 290 

Forestry 65 

Geodesy 50 

Geography  (chapter  on) . .   107 


^  The  Index  covers  only  the  main  chapters,  not  the  Appendix 
429 


430 


INDEX 


Page 

Geology  (chapter  on) ... .   115 
Greek  Philology  (chap- 
ter on) 205 

Greek  archaeology 32 

rehgion 317 

Gynecology 200 

History  (chapter  on) 133 

History  of  Art  (chapter 

on) 31 

History  of  law 150 

of  religion 314 

of  Rome 216 

Horticulture 62 

Hydrobiology 341 

Indie  religion 313 

Indology 234 

International  Law  (chap- 
ter on) 279 

International  law 157 

Italian  philology 225 

Jurisprudence 154, 285 

Latin  Philology  (chapter 

on) 205 

Law  (chapter  on) 143 

Law,  administrative 282 

constitutional 282 

criminal 292 

international 283 

Legal  history 150,  285 

medicine    199 

Linguistics  25,214,223,233,250 
Literature;  see  Philology. 

Logic 265 

Marine  biology 338,  341 

engineering 103 

Mathematics  (chapter  on)  163 
Mathematical  atronomy  47, 166 

philosophy 262 

physics 276 

Mechanics 102, 275 

Medical  Science  (chapter 

on) 169 

Medicine  (chapter  on)  —  187 


Medicine,  experimental .  .  .   336 

Metallurgy 97 

Metaphysics 260 

Methodology 265 

Microbiology 202 

Micro-parasitology ^^^ 

Mineralogy  (chapter  on) .   122 

Mineralogy loi 

Mohammedan  archaeology    37 

law.. 153 

religion 317 

Naval  architecture 103 

Neurology  (chapter  on) . .   179 

Neurology 305 

Numismatics 33,211,218 

Observational  astronomy . .     51 

Oceanography in,  116 

Oriental  Philology  (chapter 

on) 2S3 

Oto-rhino-laryngology .  .  .  .   197 

Paleobotany 58,128,340 

Palaeography 37,  207,  215 

Palaeontology    (chapter 

on) 127 

Palaentology,  anthropolog- 
ical      22 

zoological 335,340 

Parasitology 202,333,339 

Pathology  (chapter  on) . .  202 
Pathological  psychology. . .  308 

Pedagogy 89 

Penology 81, 292 

Petrology  (chapter  on) .  .  124 
Philology  (chapter  on) . . .  205 
Philosophy  (chapter  on) . .   257 

Philosophy,  legal 154 

psychological 307 

religious 318 

social 323 

Phonetics 223 

Photography,  astronomical    52 

Physics  (chapter  on) 273 

Physics,  chemical 70 

mathematical 167 


INDEX 


Page 

Physiology  (chapter  on) . .   175 
Physiological  psychology .  .  308 

zoology 33'^,  33^ 

Political  economy 286 

Political  Science  (chap- 
ter on) 279 

Political  science,  history  of .   134 

Prehistory 24,  33 

Protoplasm 332 

Protozoology 339 

Psychiatry 185 

Psychology  (chapter  on) .  303 
Psychology,  general 260 

religious 315 

Religion  (chapter  on) ....  311 
Religion,  Hindu 235 

Semitic 247 

Religious  philosophy 264 

sociology 325 

Roman  archaeology 32 

history 134,  216 

law 149 

religion 208, 317 


431 

Page 


Romance  Philology  (chap- 
ter on) 221 

Seismology 116 

Semantics 209,  222,  233 

Semitic  archaeology 37 

religion 314 

Semitic  Philology  (chap- 
ter on) 243 

Sinology 238 

Social  philosophy 262 

psychology 306 

Sociology  (chapter  on) ...  321 
Sociology,  anthropological.     25 

economics  and 287 

philosophy  and 262 

Spanish  philology 225 

Statistics 86, 325 

Surgery  (chapter  on) ....   196 

Taxonomy 57 

Vulcanology 117, 119, 125 

Zoology  (chapter  on) 329 


Index  of  Universities' 


Page 

Aix-Marseille;  instruc- 
tion in 

Astronomy 54 

Chemistry 77 

Geology 120 

History 135^136 

Law 153 

Philology,  Classical 213 

Physics 277 

Political  Science.  .  .  .  283,  285 

Zoology .. 342 

Algiers;  instruction  in 

Archaeology 41 

Astronomy 54 

Geology 117, 120 

Zoology 340 

Besanqon;  instruction  in 

Chemistry 76 

Education 92 

Geology 120 

History 135.136 

Philology,  Classical 215 

Bordeaux;  instruction  in 

Astronomy 54 

Chemistry 76 

Geography iii 

Geology 120 

History 135,136 

Law 150,153,155,157 

Philology,  Classical 213 

Romance 230 

English 254,255 

Philosophy 268 

Physics 277 

Political  Science 

282,  285,  299, 300 

Sociology 326 

^  See  additionally  the  complete  enumeration  in  Appendix  II 
covers  only  the  main  chapters. 

433 


Page 

Zoology 338,341 

Caen;  instruction  in 

Archaeology 41 

Chemistry 76 

Geology 120 

History 135,136 

Law 157 

Palaeontology 129 

Philology,  Classical 217 

Romance 231 

EngHsh 254 

Zoology.  .^ 341 

Clermont;  instruction  in 

Chemistry 76 

Geography m 

Geology 117, 120 

History 135,136 

Philology,  Classical 216 

Zoology 341 

Dijon;  instruction  in 

Archaeology 41 

Chemistry 76 

Education 92 

Geology 120 

History 135,136 

Law 150,157 

Philosophy 268 

Political  Science 298 

Grenoble;  instruction  in 

Archaeology 41 

Chemistry 76 

Education 92 

Geography m 

Geology 117, 120 

History 136 

Law 151,155,157 

Palaeontology 129 

The  Index 


434 


INDEX 


Page 

Philology,  Classical 214 

Romance 231 

Political  Science 298, 300 

Zoology _ 338 

Lille;  instruction  in 

Chemistry 76 

Criminology 84 

Education 92 

Geology 117, 120 

History 135,136 

Law 150,151,155,157 

Medicine 193, 199,  204 

Mineralogy 126 

Palaeontology 129 

Philology,  Classical 

213,215,216 

Enghsh 254 

PoHtical  Science 298 

Zoology . .  . 341 

Lyon;  instruction  in 

Archaeology 41 

Astronomy 54 

Chemistry 77 

Criminology 84 

Education 92 

Geology 120 

History 135,136 

Law.  .  .149,151,153,155,157 

Medicine 193,  204 

Mineralogy 126 

Philology,  Classical 213 

Romance 231 

Philosophy 268 

Physics 277 

Political  Science 297,306 

Zoology 338,341 

MoNTPELLiER ;  instruction  in 

Agriculture 61 

Botany 60 

Chemistry 77 

Criminology 84 

Geography iii 

Geology 120 

History 136 

Law 155,157 


Page 

Medicine 204 

Mineralogy 126 

Philology,  Classical 214 

Romance 231 

Philosophy 268 

Physics 277 

Political  science 298 

Psychology 309 

Zoology 337,340 

Nancy;  instruction  in 

Agriculture 60 

Botany 60 

Chemistry 77 

Criminology 84 

Engineering 104 

Geography iii 

Geology 120 

History 135,136 

Law 155 

Mineralogy 126 

Philology,  Classical 214 

Philosophy 269 

Political  Science  285,  299,300 

Sociology 327 

Zoology 340,341 

Paris;  instruction  in 

Anthropology 26 

Archaeology 36 

Astronomy 53 

Botany 59 

Chemistry 70 

Criminology 84 

Education • 91 

Engineering 100 

Geography no 

Geology 118 

History 134, 136 

Horticulture 61 

Law 149,150,151,152, 

153,155,157 

Mathematics 164 

Medicine,  Physiology .. .    177 

Neurology 179 

Medicine 189 

Surgery 198 


Pathology 

Mineralogy 

Palaeontology 

Petrology 

Philology,  Classical 

210-217 

Romance 

Oriental 

Semitic 

English 

Philosophy 

Physics 

Political  Science 

Psychology 

Religion 

Sociology 

Zoology . 

Poitiers  ;  instruction  in 

Chemistry 

Geology 

History 

Mathematics 

Philology,  Classical 

English 

Philosophy 

Physics 

Political  Science 

Zoology 

Rennes;  instruction  in 
Agriculture 


INDEX  435 

Page  _                                                Page 

202  Chemistry 78 

125  Geography m 

128  Geology 120 

125  History 135 

Law 157 

,219  Philology,  Classical 213 

227  Romance 231 

240  English 254,255 

245  Philosophy 269 

253  Physics 277 

265  Political  Science 299 

276  Psychology 309 

282  Zodlogy 340 

307  Toulouse;  instruction  in 

315  Archaeology 41 

326  Astronomy 54 

334  Chemistry 78 

Criminology 84 

78         Education 92 

120         Geology 120 

136  History 135,136 

165  Law...  150, 151, 154, 155, 157 

214         Mathematics 165 

254  Mineralogy 126 

269  Philology,  Classical.  .213,  214 

277  Romance 232 

299  Physics 277 

340  Political  Science  283,  284,  299 

Zoology 338,341 

61 


Index  of 

A 

Abbo 

Abraham 

Achard 

d'Acy 

Adams 

d'Aguesseau 

Albanel 

Albarran 

Alciat 143, 

d'Alembert 48, 

Alexandre 

Allais 

Aloy 

Alphandery 

Alquier 

Amagat 

Ambard 193, 

Amelineau 242, 

Ampere 69,  98, 

Andersen 

Andoyer 

Andral 

Andre-Thomas 

AngelHer 

Anglade 

Anquetil-Duperron 

Antome 209, 

Appell 53,  164,  166, 

Appleton 149,  285, 

Aquillon 

Arago 10,  100, 

Arbois  de  Joubainville .... 

Arcelin 

d'Archiac 

Aristotle 

Arnaud 

Arrou 

d  Arsonval 

Aubry 


Personal  Names 

Page  Page 

23  Audibert 149,  285 

276  Audollent 216 

192  Audomn 214 

23  Auenbrugger 187 

49  Auger 73 

143  Aulard 135 

86  Austin 154 

200  Avogado 70 

275  B 

217  Babelon 37,134,215 

231  Babinski 183,  185,  192 

78  Bacot 241 

318  Baillon 58 

184  Baire 165 

275  Baldensperger 225,  253 

200  Baldwin 306 

316  Ballet 185 

276  Barbeau 250,  254 

237  Barbier 77 

53  Barnard 92 

188  Barrande 128 

190  Barre 108,  119 

252  Barrois 120,  126 

232  Barth 235,236,313 

313  Barthelemy 282,  283,  296 

234  Barthelemy,  A 245 

276  Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire .  . 

297  235,241 

102  Basdevant 284,  298 

275  Basset 26 

152  Bastiat 287,  288 

23  Bastide 252 

115  Batbie 283 

261  Baudot 98 

72  Baudouin 24,  143 

200  Baye 24 

176  Bazaillos 266 

83  Bazy 199 

437 


438  INDEX 

Page  Page 

Beaumont.^. 123      Besnier 135,  215,  217 

see  also  Elie  de  Beaumont        Besredka 204 

Beaune 150     Besson 76 

Beauregard 326      Beuchat 24 

Beccaria 81,  156      Beudant 155,  298 

Becquerel 69,  275,  276      Beugnot 150 

Becquerel,  A.  C 100     Beurnier 200 

Becquerel,  Henri 11,  70,  100      Biard 250 

Bedier 224,  229,  251,  254     Bichat 187,  335 

Belial 72,  74     Bigot 120,  129 

Behring 190      Binet 86,  90,  307 

Beljame 252      Binet  du  Jassonneix 73 

Bellart 146     Biot 14,  276 

Bellour 289      Blackstone 148 

Belot 265      de  Blainville 127 

Bemont 135      Blaise 73 

Benard 277      Blake 198 

Benedite,  G 39     Blanc 287 

Benedite,  L 39      Blanchard 109,  in,  136 

Benoist 209  191,  202,  339,  340 

Berard 218,  219      Blanchet 34 

Berenger 86,  153      Blarez 76 

Bergaigne 235-238,313     Bloch 134,  136 

Berger 198,  245  216,  234,  241,  265 

Bergson 59,  260,  261,  266      Blondel,  A 98 

Bernard 109,  136,  193      Blondel,  M 260,  264 

Bernard,  Claude. .  .11,  172,  175     Bloomfield 236 

176,265,331,336      Blouet 32 

Bernier 21      Bodin 281 

Berr 265     Bodroux 78 

Berryer 146      de  Boeck 284 

Bert 176      Boisbaudran 123 

Berthaut 107,  119      Boisguillebert 286 

Berteaux 35      Boissier 208 

Berthelemy .  .  282,  283,  294,  296      Boissonade 136,  217 

Berthelot,  A 317      Bonfils 284 

Berthelot,  P 69,  70,  72      Bonnecase 157 

Berthelot,  R 265      Bonnet 102,  146 

Berthier loi      Bonnet,  M 209 

BerthoUet 69,  70  Bonneville  de  Marsangy . . .     82 

Bertillon 22,  85      Bonnier 58,  S9>  339,  340 

Bertrand 24,  58,  116,  129      Bonstetten 24 

Bertrand,  G 71,  72,  73      Bopp 233 

Bertrand,  J loi      Borel 164,  166, 265 

Bertrand,  M loi      Bornecque 213 


INDEX  439 

Page  Page 

Borrel 203      Brissaud,  J 150 

Borrelly 51      Brisson 143 

Bossert 51      Brives 121 

Botta 31,  244      Broca 21, 197,  200,  201 

Bouasse 277     de  Broglie 281 

Bouche-Leclercq .  .134,216,219      Brongniart 58,115,126 

Boucher  de  Perthes. 22,  23,  130      Brougham 148 

Bougainville 25      Brown-Sequard 176 

Bougie 263,268,325,326      Brumpt 339 

Bouillard 188      Brunetiere 225 

Boule 22,  23,  24, 127,     Brunhes 109, 117 

129,339,341      Brunner 150 

Bourciez 230      Brunot :  .223,  227,  254 

Bourdaloue 51      Brunschvicg 267 

Bourdon 268,  269, 309     von  Buch 115 

Bourgeois 50,123,136      Bude 207 

Bourgeois,  I'Abbe 23,  24     Bufifon 21,25, 127,  332 

Bourguet 219      Buisine 76 

Bourguinon 182      Buisson,  F 89 

Bourneville 183      Buisson,  H 277 

Bourquelot 72,  74      Burnet 204 

Bourrilly 136      Burnouf 217,234,235,313 

Boussac 118 

Boussinesq 167,  275,  276  ^ 

Boussingault 70      Cabouat 289 

Boutmy 138,  281, 300  Cagnat.33, 37, 135,  213,  215-217 

Boutroux 165      Cahen 166,  283 

Boutroux,  E 261,  266      Caillaux 290 

Boutroux,  L 76      Caillemer 134, 151,  298 

Boutroux,  P 265      Cailletet loi 

Bouty 276      Caland 237 

Bouvy 225,  231      Gallon 98,  loi 

Bouzat 78      Calmette 135, 193,  204 

Boxler 216      Calot 201 

Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  ...     25      Camus 184 

de  Brazza 25      de  Candolle 57 

Bravais 122      Capitan 23,  26 

Breal 89,209,219,  223,233      Capitant 153,155,289,296 

Brehier 135,268      Caralp 126 

Bremond 283      Carez 119 

Breton 204      Carnot 97, 100,  275 

Bretonneau 188      Carre 136 

Breuil 23      Cartailhac 23 

Brillouin 168      Cartan 167 

Brissaud 180, 182, 189      Cartault 212 


440 

Casanova 240, 

Casaubon 133,  207, 

Cassini 

Castaigne 193, 

Castelain 

Cauchy 163, 

Caullery 332, 

Cayeux 118, 

Cazamian 252, 

Cestre 

Cezar-Bru 

Chabaneau 

Chabert 

Chabot 

Chabrie , .  .71 

Chacornac 

Chaillon 

Chamard 

Chamberland 

Champollion 12,31, 

Chantemesse 

Chantre 

Chappuis i4j  i5> 

Chaput 

Charcot 180, 189, 

Charency 

Chareyre 

Charlois 

Charmont 155, 

Charnay 

Charpy 

Chasles 

Chasles,  E 

Chasles,  P 

Chashn 

Chateaubriand 

Chatelain 93, 

ChateUier 

Chatton 

Chauffard 189, 

Chauveau 

Chauvet 

Chavannes,  E 239, 

Chavannes,  Puvis  de 

Chavastelon 


INDEX 

Page  Page 

245      Chavegrin 153 

217      Chenon 151,285 

10      Chesneau 102 

202  ChevaHer 288 

254      Chevreul 69,  70 

275      Chezy 234,235 

338      Chipiez ss 

125      Choate 146 

253  Choisy 35 

254  Chomel 188 

300      Chretien 76 

223      Christy 23 

214  Civiale 197 

245      Cirot 231 

,73      Clairaut 47,48,50 

51      Clapeyron 275 

203  Claude 184 

228      Cledat 223,231 

72      Clerc 135 

243  Clermont-Ganneau. .  37, 38,  240, 

202  241,246 

24  Clunet 293 

275      Cobden 288 

200      Cochin 225 

305      Coggia 51 

25  Cohen 33 

102      Coke 146, 147 

51      Colbert 12,143,286 

298      Collet 231 

25      Collignon 22, 36, 134/213 

99      Collinet 150, 151 

164      CoUot 120 

226      Colson '.....  102,  289,  290 

226      Combes 98,  loi 

308      Compayre 89 

281      Comte 25,154,262,305, 

215  323,324 
24      Condillac 260 

340      Constans 213 

191      Constant 281 

157      Copaux 72 

23      Coras 147 

240      Cordier 239,  240 

9      Cormenin 282 

76      Cornu,  A loi,  257 


Cornu,  J 226 

Corot 24 

Corre 83 

Corvisart 187 

Cosserat 277 

Costantin 5^,  59 

Couche 97,  loi 

Coulomb 98, 275 

Courajod 34 

Courbaud 212 

Courbet 100 

Courmant 23, 193,  204 

Courbet 100 

Courtade 200 

Courteault 136 

Cousin 260 

Coutil 24 

Couturat 265 

Coxe loi 

Cremieu 273 

Cresson 266 

Croiset,  A 218,  219 

Croiset,  M 218, 219 

Crouzon 182 

Cruet 155 

Cuche 86 

Cujas 133, 143, 147,  281 

Cultru 136 

Cuny 234 

Cuq 149,  285,  296 

Curie,  Mme.  S 70j  7i>  73> 

123,276 

Curie,  P 69,  71, 123, 126, 

276 

Cusset 24 

Cuvier .  .  .  .  11, 21, 115, 127, 128, 
130,331,334,335 

D 

Dallemagne 84 

Dalton 69 

Damoiseau 49 

Damas-Hinard 226 

Dangeard 58 

Daremberg .209, 218 


INDEX  441 

Page 

Dareste 152, 285 

Darmesteter,  A 222 

Darmesteter,  J 313 

Dartein 35 

Darwin 332 

Dastre 176, 177, 338 

Daubree 98, 116, 123 

Dauriac,  A 102 

Dauriac,  L 264,  265 

Debidour 136,319 

Dechelette 24 

Declareuil 151,300 

Defremery 244 

Degert 216 

Degois 157 

Dejerine,  J 181-185, 199 

Dejerine,  Mme 181 

Dejob 225 

Delacroix 267 

Delafosse 122 

Delage,  A 120 

Delage,  Yves 338 

Delaruelle 213 

Delattre 252 

Delaunay 49 

see  also  de  Launay. 

Delaunoy loi 

Delbet 200 

Delbos 307 

Delebecque 109 

Delezenne 72 

Delisle 133, 209 

Delorme 198 

Delpech 298 

Demangeon 109,  no 

Demarest 115, 116 

Demogue 155, 157,  285,  298 

Demoulins 326 

Denifle 93 

Deniges 76 

Deniker 22 

Denis 136 

Denis,  F 226 

Denman 146 

Deperet 120, 127 


442 


INDEX 


Page 

Deprez 98 

Derenbourg,  H 245 

Derenbourg,  J 245 

Derocquigny 250,  253 

Descamps,  P 200 

Descartes    13,163,259,260,274 

Deschamps 226 

Des  Cloizeaux 124, 125 

Desdevises  du  Dezert 136 

Desgrez 72,  74 

Deshayes 128 

Desjardins 284 

Deslandres 52,  276,298 

Deslongchamps 127 

Desnoyers 24 

Despagnet 284 

Despine 81 

Desrousseaux 219 

Desserteaux 150,  298 

Dhaleine 252 

Dichirara 200 

Diehl 35,36,135,241 

Dieulafoy 32, 189 

Diez 221,  223 

Dollfus-Ausset 116 

Dornat 143, 148,  281 

Doneau 143,  281 

Donoyer 288 

Dopter 204 

Dornet 213 

Dottin 233,255 

Douaren 143 

Doyen 198 

Doyon 176 

Drach 276 

Dubois 299 

Duboscq 337^341 

Dubourg 76 

Du  Cange 133,  207,  222 

Duchenne 189 

Duck 143 

Duclaux 72 

Dufour 283 

Dufour,  L 340 

Dufrcnoy loi,  116 


Duguit 155,  282,  285, 299 

Duhem 70,  265, 277 

Dujardin 33^,333 

Dujardin-Beaumetz 204 

Dulong 100, 275 

Dumas 69,  70, 136 

Dumas,  G 268, 307 

Dumont 325 

Dumont,  A 32,218 

Dumoulin 143, 281 

Dunan 266 

Dupanloup 89 

Duplessix 284 

Dupont- White 281 

Dupre 185,186 

Dupuis 284 

Dupuytren 172,  174, 196 

Durand 214 

Durkheim.  .  .25,85,91,  92,  152 
263,  267,268,315,325,326 

Duruy 89 

Dusuzeau 102 

Duval 245 

Duvegrier 25 

Du  Verdy 284 

£ 

Ebelmen 123 

Edmond 24 

Edmont 223, 229 

Egleston loi 

Eiffel 97 

Elie  de  Beaumont  .  98, 100,  loi, 
115,116,146 

Encyclopedists 260 

Enlart 34,135 

Enriquez 184 

d'Entrecasteaux 25 

Erasmus 207 

Ernout 213,  234 

Erskine 146 

Esmein 150, 282 

Esperandieu 34 

Espinas 324 


Esteve 

Estienne,  Henri 217, 

Estienne,  Robert 207, 

Evans 

F 

Fabia 

Fabre 

Fabre,  J 

Fabry 52,  54, 

Faguet 

Faidherbe 

Falbot 

Fauchet 

Fauchille 284, 

Faure 199,  200,  294, 

Fauriel 224, 

de  Faye 

Febvre 

Fenelon 

Ferand-Giraud 

Fermat 

Fernbach 

Ferry 

Feuillerat 252, 

Ficheur 

Filhol 

Finot 237, 

Fizeau 52, 122, 

Flach..  ..135,150,151,153, 

Flahault 

Flamand 

Fliche 

Flory 

Flusin 

Foix 

Fonsegrive 264, 

de  Forcrand 

Forest 

Fossey 240,  241,  246, 

Fouan 

Foucart. .  .37, 134,  218,  219, 
Foucault.  .98,  268,  269,  275, 

Foucher 237,  238, 

Fouillee 89, 154,  264, 


INDEX  443 

Page  Page 

225     Foulche-Delbosc 226 

222      Fouque 123,124 

217  Fourier. . .  154, 163,  275,  276,  287 

23      Fournier,  E 120 

Fournier,  P. .  .134, 151, 189,  296 

Franf ois-Franck. . .  176, 177, 189 

213      Franklin 275 

78      Frechet 165 

340      Fremy 123 

277     Fresnel 9, 124,  275 

225      Freundler 73 

26      de  Freycinet 100 

120  Friedel 123, 126 

224  Funck-Brentano 284 

293  Fustel  de  Coulanges. .  .  130, 144, 

296  150,152,285 

225  Fuster 326 

318 

136  G 

286      Gachon 136 

284     Gafltarel 136 

163      Gaffiot 214 

73      Gaidoz 229,  254 

89      Galabert 135 

254     Galileo 274 

121  Galland 243 

127      Gallavardin 193 

238     Gallois 109,  no 

275      Galois 163 

296      Garbe 277 

III  Garfon.  .  .  .84,  86, 157,  296, 326 

121      Garnier 77,185 

135      Garraud 86,157,285,297 

86      Garsonnet 150 

76  Gaucher 192 

182   Gauchy 100 

266   Gauckler 33 

77  Gaudemet 298 

97      Gaudin 123 

316      Gaudry 127 

102      Gaultier 265 

319      Gauthiot 234,  241 

309      Gautier,  A 72,  74 

316      Gautier,  E.  F 121 

325      Gautier,  L 224 


444  INDEX 

Page  Page 

Gautier,  T 226     Gournay 286 

Gavet 299      Goursat 164, 166 

Gay 135      Gouy 277 

Gay-Lussac 69,  70, 100     Gramme 98,  276 

Gayon 76      Grammont 214,231 

Gebhart 225      Grand-Eury 58 

Genestal 151,318      Grandjean 123 

Gentil 125      Granet 241,316 

Geny 155,285,299      de  la  Grasserie 152 

Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire 21      Greard 89 

Gerardin 285      Grebaut 134,  246 

Gerhardt 69,  70     Grehant 176 

Gervais 127      Grignard 77 

Giacobini 51      Grimm 233 

Gibbs 6     Gruner 98,  loi 

Gide,  C 289,290,296,326      Gsell 33,37,134,216,246 

Gide,  P 152,  285      Guebhard 24 

Gilbert 192      Guelle 284 

Gilles  de  la  Tourette 189      Guerin 204 

Gillieron 223,  228,  229      Guernier 298 

Gilman 6      Guetat 157 

Ginguene 225      Guettard 115 

Ginoulhiac 150     Guichard 73, 166,  276 

Giran 78     Guignard 58, 59 

Girard,  P 219      Guignebert 319 

Girard,  P.  F .  .134, 149,  285,  296      Guillain 184, 193 

Giraud 150,  285      Guillaume 47,  275 

Giraud-Teulon 25      Guillebot  de  Nerville 102 

Girault 285      Guillet 99 

Girod 23      Guimbert 72,  74 

Glangeaud 120     Guiraud 135 

Glasson 150,  285      Guiyesse 38 

Gley 176,339      Guizot .  .89,  281 

Glotz 134,152,219      Guntz 77 

Goblot 244,  268      Guyau 89,  264 

Godefroi,  J 143,  281      Guye 70 

Godefroy,  F 222      Guyon 197,193,200 

Goelzer 212      Guyot 77>  252 

Goethe 5.7.16,332 

Goldschmidt 151  pj 

Goldstiicker 235 

Gorgeu 123  Hadamard.  .  .  164, 166, 167,  276 

Gosset 200     Haddon 21 

Goupil 75     Halbwachs 263 

de  la  Goupilliere 98, 100     Hale 276 


INDEX  445 

Page  Page 

Halevy 266  Homo 135 

Halevy,  J 241,242,  247  Homolle 36,218,  219 

Hall 98  Hospitaller 98 

Haller 7i>73>  75  Hotman 142, 147 

Halphen 135  Houllevique 277 

Hamelin 264  Houssay 338 

Hamilton 146  Howard 156 

Hamonet 72  Huart 241,247,317 

Hamy 22,25,52  Hubert 25,263,316,325 

Hanot 189, 191  Huchard 189 

Hanriot 72  Huchon 253 

Harnack 319  Huet 184 

Hartmann 200  Hugounenq 77 

Harvey 336  Huguet 76 

Hatzfeld 222  Huguet,  E 228 

Haug 117, 118  Humbert 102, 167 

Haumant 225  von  Humboldt 5,  7, 11, 16 

Hauriou. .  155,  282,  283,  285,300  Huvelin 149, 151,  285 

Hauser 136  Huxley 129 

Haussoullier 38, 135, 152,  Huygens 274 

218,219 

Hautefeuille 123,  284  I 

Hauvette 226,  228  von  Ihering 155 

Hauvette-Besnault 235  Imbart  de  la  Tour 284 

Haiiy 70,98,122  Imbeaux 102 

Ha  vet 211,219,229  Irnerius 143 

Hazard 225,  226  Izoulet 266,326 

Hedgcock 252 

Hennebique 97  J 

Henneguy 339  Jaboulay 198 

Henriquez 193  Jacob,  A 219 

Henry 146  Jacob,  C 120 

Henry,  Ch 308  Jacob,  E 209 

Henry,  P 51  Jacquelin 283,  296 

Henry,  Pr 51  Jacquey 298 

Henry,  Victor 209,  237  Jacquot 24 

Henzey 32  Jalaguier 200 

Hericourt 190  Jamin 275 

Hermet 24  Janet 192,  266,  285, 308 

Hermite 163  Janssen 52 

Heron  de  Villefosse .  38,  39, 135,  Jay 153,  289 

211,  216  Jeanroy 224,  226,  227,  228, 

Heroult 98,  loi  251,  254 

Herve 26  Jeze 282,  283,  290,  293,  296 

Holleaux 36, 135,  219  Jobbe-Duval 149, 151 


446 


INDEX 


Page 

JoflFroy 189 

Jolly 339 

de  Joly 102 

Joly,  H 84 

Jonckheere 51 

Jones 233 

Jordan 135.164 

Joubert 98 

Joubin 339 

Jouguet 135,215,219 

Julien 238,239 

Jullian 134 

Jumentie 184 

Jungfleisch 71,75 

Jusserand 251 

de  Jussieu 57 

K 

Kant 154,  261,  264,  268 

Kergomard 90 

Kilian 120, 129 

Kirmisson 200,  201 

Kleinclausz 135 

Klippel 184 

Koenigs 167,  275,  276 


Labbe 192 

Laberthonniere 264 

Laborde 157,  297 

Labori 147 

Laboulaye 150,  281 

Labre 74 

Lacassagne 83, 85 

Lacaze-Duthiers 335)33'^ 

Lachelier 260,  261,  266 

La  Combe 325 

Lacote 238 

Lacour 166 

Lacroix,  A. . . .  109, 119, 124, 125 

Lacroix,  L 318 

La  Curne  de  Sainte-Palaye  224 

Laederich 191 

Laennec 174, 187 

Lafaye 213,  215,  219 


Page 

Laferriere 150,  283 

Lafond 226 

Lagrange 48,163,275 

Laignel-Lavastine 184,307 

Lalande 267 

Lallemand 51 

Lamarck..  .  .  11,  21,  57, 115, 127, 

331,332,335,336 

Lamartine 81 

Lambert 151,153,155,241, 

247,285,319 

Lambin 207,  217 

Lambling 76 

Lamoignon 143 

Lamcereaux 189 

Landouzy 190 

Landry 189,  289 

Langevin 168,  276 

Langlois 17^,339 

Langlois,  C.  V 138,  224 

Lanson 225,227,  254 

Lapicque 176 

Laplace 48,  70, 163,  275 

de  Lapparent 98, 100,  loi, 

108, 117 

de  Lapradelle 284, 296 

La  Provostaye 14 

Larcher 285 

Larnaude ....  155,  282,  285,  296 
La  Rochefoucauld-Lian- 

court 81 

Lartet 23, 127, 130 

Lasegue 185 

de  Lasteyrie 34, 41 

de  Latour,  A 226 

de  Launay 98,99,  loi,  102, 

118,123,125 

Laurent 135 

Laurent,  A 69,  70,  78 

Laurent,  E 83 

Lauvergne 81 

Lauvriere 252 

Laveleye 152 

Laveran 190,  204, 340 

Laville 23 


INDEX 


447 


Page 

Lavisse 89, 109, 135 

Lavoisier 13, 69,  70 

Lebeau 72, 74 

Le  Bel 7°?  73 

Lebesgue 167 

Le  Blanc 98 

Le  Blant 34 

Le  Bon 325 

Le  Braz 232, 255 

Lebreton loi 

Le  Breton 231,  255 

Lechalas 265,  266 

Lecaillou 338 

Le  Chatelier,  A 247, 326 

Le  Chatelier,  H. .  .71,  73,  74,99, 
100,  loi,  122, 126,  276 

Lecomte 59 

Le  Comte,  A 100 

Lecrivain 135,  214 

Le  Dan  tec 338 

Leduc 276 

Lefebvre 151,  286,  296 

Lefevre-Pontalis 41 

Lefranc 229,  243,  254 

Legendre 163 

Leger 338 

Legouis 251,252,253 

Legrain 102 

Legueu 193,  200 

Leibnitz 261 

Lejars 198,  200 

Lejay 212 

Lejeal 25 

Lemaitre 225 

Lemercier 86 

Lemoine,  G 73 

Lemoine,  V 128 

Lemonon 284 

Lemoult 76 

Lenard 102 

Lenoir 97 

Lenormand 78 

Lenormant 244 

Lenormant,  C 218 

Lenormant,  F ^3)  218 


Page 

Leon 265 

Lepine 193 

LePlay..._ 287,325,326 

Le  Poittevin. . .  .84,86, 157,  296 

Leprieur,  Paul 39 

Leri 184 

Leriche 127 

Le  Roux 277 

Leroy,  M 156 

Le  Roy,  Ed 262,  264,  266 

Leroy-Beaulieu,  Anatole. . .    138 
Leroy-Beaulieu,  Paul. .  287, 289, 

296 

Lescoeur 76 

Lescure 153 

Lespieau 75 

de  Lesseps 97 

Letourneau 25, 152, 325 

Letulle 191,  202,  203 

Levaditi 204 

Levainville 109 

Levasseur 287,  289 

Le  Verrier 10, 49 

Levi,  Isidore 241,  249, 319 

Levi,  Israel 241,  249, 317 

Levi,  Sylvain .  238,  240,  241, 316 

Levy 222 

Levy,  R.  G 291 

Levy-Bruhl 263,  267,  268 

Levy-UUmann 298 

Lhermitte 184 

Liard 89,  265 

Liebig 15 

Lignier 58 

Limasset 102 

Linnaeus 21,335 

Lintilhac,  E 224 

Liouville 163 

Lippmann 276 

Lipsius 207 

de  L'Isle,  Arnoul 243 

Lissajous 275 

Lister 197 

Littleton 147 

Littre 217,325 


448 


INDEX 


Page 

Littre,  E 222 

Lockyer 52 

Lods 240,  249,319 

Loewy 52 

Loisel 339 

Loisy 130,  248,  264,319 

Lombroso 81 

Lot,  F 135,  228,  229 

Lot,  J 229 

Loth 254 

de  Loubat,  Due 25 

Louis 174, 188 

Loyola 93 

Lucas-Championniere 197 

Luchaire 285 

Luizet 32,  51 

Lyell 23 

Lyon-Caen 153, 296 

M 

Mabillon 207 

Mace 213 

Magendie 172, 174, 175 

Magnol 157 

Mahoudeau 26 

Maine  de  Biran 260,  261 

Maine,  Sir  Henry .  130,  144, 150, 

152 

Maitland 150 

Malapert 266 

Male 36,135 

Malesherbes 146 

Malgaigne 196 

Mallard loi,  122 

Malte-Brun 108 

Malus 9 

Mandaire 201 

Mangin 59 

Manouvrier.  .  .  .22,26,309,341 

Mansfield 146 

Maquenne 72 

Marey 172, 176, 178 

Marfan 192 

de  Margerie.  .  108, 109, 116, 119 
Marie 73 


Page 

Marie,  A 308 

Marie,  P.181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 
190,202,308 

Mariejol 136 

Mariette 12,31 

Marion,  H 89,  92 

Marion,  M 290 

Marlio 290 

Marouzeau 214,  229,  234 

Marquis 73 

Marsan 200 

Marschal 340 

de  Martel 184 

Martha,  C 208 

Martha,  J 212 

Martin 23,  72,  98,  203, 

217,245 

Martinenche 225,  226,  228 

de  Martonne 108, 109,  no, 

116, 118 

Mascart 98,  275 

Maspero.  .  .  .  12,31,38,  240,314 

Masqueray 26 

Masseck 252 

Massenat 23 

Massigli 153 

Mathiez 136 

Matignon 71,  75, 126 

Matruchot 59 

Mauss 25,263,316,325 

Mauxion 269 

Maxwell 84 

May 149,  285 

Maze 72 

Mazon 219 

Meige. 182 

Meillet 214,  233,  238,  241 

Melin 327 

Menant 32,  244 

Merignhac    284,  299 

Merimee,  E 2^6,  231 

Merimee,  P 226 

Merlant 231 

Mersenne 275 

Meslin 277 


Page 

Mesnager 97,  99?  102 

Mesnil 72,  204,  340 

Metschnikoff 204,  339 

Metzner 76 

Meunier 119,  125 

Meyer 222,  224 

Meyerson 265 

Meynial 149, 151 

Mezieres 225 

Michaut 228 

Michaux 199 

Michel 39 

Michel-Levy 100, 123, 124 

Michelet 89, 133 

Michon 299 

Michoud 155,  285,  298 

Migeon 39 

Milhaud 262,  267 

Mill 287 

Miller 217 

Millet 317 

Milne-Edwards.  .  .127,128,335 

Minguin 77 

de  Miribel 100 

Mitscherlich 14 

Moissan 69, 98 

Moitessier 77 

MoUiard 59 

Monaco,  Prince  of .  .  23 , 1 1 1 ,  342 

Monceaux 212, 318 

Monge 163 

Monnier 150 

Montaigne 89 

de  Montchretien 286 

Montel 167 

de  Montessus  de  Ballore ...    116 

Montesquieu 133, 144, 281 

Montfaucon 208,  217, 224 

Morat 176 

Moreau 282, 283 

Morel 77,81,298 

Morel,  L 252 

Morel-Fatio 226, 229 

Morestin 199 

Moret 38,318 


INDEX  449 

Page 

Morgagni 187 

de  Morgan 32 

Morillot 231 

de  Mortillet,  A 23, 26 

deMortillet,  G 23,  24,33 

Morvan 189 

Motylynsky 26 

Mouchet 200 

Mouret 102 

Moureu 72,  74,  75 

Mouriquand 193 

Mouton 72 

Moye 299 

Muller 77 

Muller,J 175,336 

Muller,  M 235 

Miintz,  A 73 

Mlintz,  E 35, 41 

Muret 207, 217 

N 

Nadaillac 24 

Napoleon 12,  243 

Nattan-Larrier 203 

Nau 245 

Negoette 339 

Nelaton 197 

Netter 192 

Newton 25,  26,  274,  275 

Nickles 120 

Nicloux 176 

Nicolas 199,  339 

Nicolle 203 

Nisard 208 

de  la  Noe 108, 116 

de  Nolhac 39,225 

de  Nostredame 224 

O 

O'Connell 148 

Oechsner  de  Coninck 77 

Offret 126 

Ohm 276 

Oilier 197 

Omont 210 


4SO  INDEX 

Page  Page 

Oppert 32,244  Perrin,  J 71,73,276 

d'Orbigny 115, 128  Perronnet 97 

d'Orbiny 25  Perrot 33, 40 

Ortolan 149, 285  Perrotin 51 

Osmond 98  Petit 77,275 

Otis 146  Peyrony 23 

Ouvrard 73  Pfister 135 

Owen 127  Philippe 308 

Ozanam 225  Physiocrats 286 

Piat 266 

^  Pic 153,289,297 

Painleve 164, 167  Picard 265 

Painvin loi  Picard,  E 164, 165 

Palante 265  Pica  vet 267, 318 

Palustre 34  Picot 225 

Pape-Carpentier 89  Picque 200 

Papillault 23, 609  Piedelievre 284,  296 

Papin 200  Piette 23 

Pardessus 150  Pigeaud 102 

Pare 196  Pigeon 76 

Paris,  Gaston 222,  224,  251  Pillet 284,  296 

Paris,  Paulin 224,  226  Pillon 264 

Parisot 135,136  Pinart 25 

Parodi 266  Pinel 174 

Pascal 13, 163,  260,  274  Piroutet 24 

Passerat 109  Pistoye 284 

Pasteur. .  .13,14, 15,69,70, 172,  Pithou 207 

189,197,331,333,334,336  Place 31 

Patin 208,217  Planiol 155,285,  296 

Paulhan 265  Plessis 212 

Pecaut 89  Poincare,  H. .  .  50, 100,  loi,  164, 

Pelletan 102  167,  262,  265 

Pelliot 238, 239,  240  Poincare,  L 265 

Pellissier 255  Poinsot 275 

Percerou 153  Poisson 48, 163,  275 

de  Perceval 244  Politis 284 

Perdrix 77  Poinel 128 

Perez 89, 338  Poncelet 97 

de  Perigny,  Comte 25  de  Pontecoulant 49 

Perrault 10  Pontremoli 36, 38 

Perreau 326  Portier 190 

Perrey 116  Post 144 

Perrier,  C 84  Postel 243 

Perrier,  E 338, 339, 341  Potain 188, 192 

Perrin 200,  265  Potherat 200 


Page 

Pothier 143,281 

Potier loi 

Pettier 40j2i3 

Pouillet 275 

Poupardin 135 

Pourcel 99 

Pozzi 200 

Pradier-Fodere 284 

Prenant 339 

Prentout 135 

Prestwich 23 

Prevost 86 

Prevost,  M 100 

Prevost-Paradol 281 

Priem 127 

Prilleux 58 

Proal 84 

Prou 135,215 

Proudhon 154,  287 

Prudhomme 86 

Pruner  Bey 21 

Pruvot 338 

Psichari 218,  241,319 

Puech 219 

Puiseux 52,53 

Puvis  de  Chavannes 9 

de  Puymaigre 226 


de  Quatrefages. . .  21,  22,  25, 130 

Quatremere 244 

Quenu 199 

Quenisset 51 

Quesnay 286 

Quetelet 22, 81, 325 

Quicherat 34,  208 

Quinet 89 

R 

Rabelais 89 

Rabot 119 

Radais 59 

Radet 135 

Rames 24 

Ramus 93 


INDEX  451 

Page 

Raoult 70 

Rashdall 93 

Ravaisson 260,  261 

Raveneau 88, 109 

Rayer 188 

Rayet 52 

Rayet,  0 32 

Raymond 180 

Raynaud 26, 316 

Raynouard 222,  224 

Reaumur 98 

Rebelliau 319 

Reclus 108, 198,  200 

Recoura 76 

Regnault 100,  loi 

Regnier 235 

Reinach 24, 40,  211 

Remusat 238 

Renan  31, 133,  225,  244,  263, 314 

Renard 326 

Renaud 290 

Renault 58,  283,  296 

Renel 216 

Renouvier 264 

Resal loi,  102 

Reuss 136 

Revault  d'Allones 307 

Reverdin 198 

Reville 314 

Revillout  freres 152 

Revoil 34 

Revon 136 

Rey 268 

Reynier 200 

Reynier,  G 228 

Ribierre 85 

Ribot 90, 306, 307 

Ricard 200 

Richard 155,327 

Richelieu 12, 13 

Richet 176, 190,338 

Ricord 174, 189 

Rieffel 200 

Riemann 209,  212 

Rist 193,326 


452 


INDEX 


Page 

Rivals 77 

Rivaud 269 

Riviere 2^ 

Rivot loi 

Robert 81 

De  Roberty 325 

Robin 267 

Rochard 200 

de  Rochas,  Beau 97 

Rodet 204 

Rodin 9 

Roger 202 

Rolin 155 

Rolland 284,  299 

Rolland  d'Erceville 93 

Rollet 86 

Rollin 13,93 

Romain 214 

Roman 120 

Rome  de  I'lsle 70 

Romieu 102 

Roques 228,  229,  254 

deRosny 25 

Rosset 231 

Rossi 281 

Roth 235 

Rouard  de  Card 284,  299 

Roule 339 

Rousseau 89, 144,  260,  281 

Rousselot,  I'Abbe.. .  25,  223,  230 

Rousselot,  P 226 

Roussy 185,  202 

Routier 200 

Roux ...  72,  75,  78, 157, 190,  202, 

339 

Royer-Collard 281 

Ruprich-Robert 34 

Rutot 24 

Ruyssen 268 


Sabatier,  A 265 

Sabatier,  P 78,  226 

de  Sacy 244 

Saglio 209,218 


Page 

Sagnac 136 

Saladin ^^ 

Saleilles. .  154, 155, 157,  282,  285 

de  Saporta 58, 128 

Sarasin 123 

Sarzec 32 

de  Saulcy 244 

Saumaise 207 

de  Saussure 233 

Sauvage. ...  78, 97,  loi,  102, 127 

Sauvageau 58 

Sauve 200 

Savariaud 201 

Savart 276 

Savigny 144 

Say 287 

Scaliger 133,207,217 

Schatz 298 

Scheil 39, 152,  241,  248 

Schelling 261,  268 

Scherer 225 

Schiller 5 

Schirmer 25, 109 

Schloesing 73 

Schloesing  fils 73 

Schlumberger 35 

Schmidt 215 

Schneider 99 

Schultze ^7,7, 

Schupfer 150 

Schwann 333 

Schwartz 199 

Sebileau 200,  201 

See. 13s 

Seglas 308 

Seignobos 136 

Sejourne 102 

Senart 235,236,237 

Senderens 78 

Seraphin-Couvreur 239 

Serres 130 

Serrigny 282 

Serruys 219 

Sertillanges 266 

Servin 146 


INDEX  453 

Page  _                              Page 

Seunes 120     de  Tassy,  Garcin 244 

Sicard 184     Teissier 189, 192, 193 

Simiand 264, 325      Temple 51 

Simon,  J 89,  281      Termier loi,  118, 125 

Simon,  T 307     Terracher 223 

Simonet 299     Terrier 198 

Sismondi 287     Tessier 283 

Slane 244  •   Testut 338 

Smith. 148     Teutsch 86 

Sogonzac 25     Texier 32 

le  Sorbon,  Robert 13     Texte 225 

Sorel 284     Tiialler 153,  296 

Sorre 109     Thenard 69 

Souques,  A 183, 184, 185     Thevenin 135 

Souriau,  M 231      Thevenin 127, 129 

Souriau,  P 269     Thiaucourt 214 

Spencer 306, 324     Thoinot 85 

Spurgeon 251  Thomas,  A .  .  .  222,  226,  228,  229 

Sainte-Beuve 208,  225     Thomas,  Andre 182 

Sainte-Claire  Deville. .  .  .69,98,     Thomas,  Emile 210 

122, 123     Thomas,  L.  P 226 

St.  Gilles 70     Thomas,  Paul 150, 300 

Saint-Hilaire 21     Thomas,  W 250,  254 

St.  Leger 136     Thoulet 116, 126 

Saint-Simon .  .  262,  287, 323, 324     Thureau-Dangin 245 

Saint- Vincent 21      Thurot 209,  218 

de  Stael 225     Thurot,  C 223 

Stapfer 252     Ticknor 5,6 

Stein 239     Tilho 25 

Stephan 51     Tisserand 49 

Stouff 135     Tisserand,  E 61 

Stourm 290     Tissier 76,  296 

Straus-Diirckheim 340     de  Tocqueville 81,  281 

Strowski 228     Topinard 21,22,130 

Sturm 163     Torricelli 274 

Toulouse 308 

™  Tournefort 57 

Taine 133,208,225,250,  Toutain. .  .33,  215,  216,  219,317 

263, 305     Trauchy 326 

Talon 146     Trouessart 339 

Tannery,  J 265     Trousseau 188, 189, 192 

Tannery,  P 218,  265     Tuffier 199 

Tanon 155     Turgot 286, 324 

Tarde..  25,82,83,152,306,325     Turnebe 207,217 

Tardif 150     Turpain 277 


454 


INDEX 


Urbain 71,73,75,126,276 


Vacher 109 

Vacher  de  la  Pouge 325 

Valery 299 

Vallas 298 

Vallaux 109 

Vallery 284 

Vallery-Radot 13 

Vallette 213 

Vaquez 189, 191 

Van  Tieghem 58 

Varignon 275 

Vasseur 120 

Vauban 286 

Veau 200 

Velain no 

Velpeau 174, 196 

Vendryes 38,  214,  233,  241 

Verliac 200 

Verneau 22,  23,  26 

Verneilh 34 

Vernes 241,  249, 317 

Verneuil 123 

Vernier 215 

Verrier 250 

Vessiot 167 

Vezes 76 

Viala 203 

Vianey 225,  231 

Viardot 226 

Vidal 84 

Vidal-Naquet 86 

Vidal  de  la  Blache  108, 109,  no 

de  Viel-Castel 226 

Vieta 163 

Vignon 77 

Vigouroux 76 

Ville 77 

de  la  Ville  de  Mirmont .  .  .  .    213 
Villemain 225 


Page 
188 
231 


Villemin 

Villey 

Villiers 72,  74 

Vinson 26 

Viollet 150 

Viollet-le-Duc 34 

Vire 24 

Vivien 281,  283 

de  Vogue 25,  H5 

Voisin 307 

Voltaire 81, 133, 146, 156 

W 

Waddington 136 

Wahl 77 

Walckenaer 102 

Waldeck 25 

Wallerant 125 

Walther 200 

Waltz,  R 213 

Weber 265 

Weil 209,  218 

Weill 136 

Weiss 176,  284,  296 

Welsch 120 

Werner 115 

Widal 191 

Wieger 239 

Wilbois 264 

Wines 82 

Winter 265 

Wolf 52,208 

Worms 326 

Wiirtz 69,  70,  202 


Yersin 189, 190 

Yves,  St 148 


Zeiller 58,  loi 


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Science  and  learning  in  France. 


